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1                                              Dr. Hope's Chymistry

1825

[in margin:] "Matter"

The term matter is applied to all ponderable substances & which is only known to us by its properties. These may be divided into essential & secondary & without them matter could not exist. The essential qualities are extension, impenetrability, & inertia, by which we mean; firstly space 2ndly the property of excluding all other atoms from its own space, & 3dly we mean by inertia the power of remaining in that state in which they may at that form be.

[in margin:] "by gravity"

The secondary properties, are such as give to matter their common appearance, such as 1st gravity, when exists equally in all substances, as may be seen by a feather & a guinea descending with equal velocity in vacuum, but their specific gravity is according to their density, when compared to some other menstruum. To find out the exact proportion, there are several instruments.

For Fluids

[in margin:] "Hydrometers''

1st A hollow ball with a weight attached at one end & a scale at the other, which rises or falls according to the density of the fluid in which it is immersed to it.

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Mr Loyds Hydrometer          [in margin:] "1 2 Mr Loyds Hydromr"

2nd A is an empty empty bulb E is a tube leading from it & F a notch in it

B a vessel full of the fluid whose Sp Grav is required, & D a cup with weights.

So that suppose B is filled with water & it requires a 1000 grains to immerse A to the notch F, but that it require 1800 grains, when B is filled with S Acid, then 1800 being divided by 1000 the quotient is 1.8 which is the Sp Gravity of the S Acid.

[in margin:] "Mr Love Hydromr"

There is also one more way, viz. – a number of small balls regularly graduated, so that when thrown into any fluid the one that remains stationary, has the Sp Gravity marked on the outside.

For solids, the process is very simple viz weigh it in water & then out of it, & the weight of it when not immersed divided by the difference is the Sp Gravity.

(I have missed two lectures on account of illness)

[in margin:] "Heat"

Heat. Caloric possesses there three great properties viz

Expansion, Evaporation, & Incandescence.

Most bodies when Caloric is applied to them, expand & when [substracted] contract, but there are exceptions. Thus water (& some other substance as Iron, Bismuth, & Antimony expand at the moment of consolidation, [in margin: Water expands at congelation]

which fits them so well for necessary impressions) gradually expands from 3 g & 1/2 Fart - , which is its maximum density, to 32 when it is increased in bulk 1/10th.

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[in margin:] "Dr Hopes method of showing that water above 3g 1/2 becomes Sp. lighter.-"

Dr Hope has shown this very neatly.

32º + 68º et vice versa 39 1/2º + 32º [=] (39 1/2 is MD)

[in margin:] "Thermometers"

Of this property of expansion in heat, we make various uses of which one of the greatest is, the Thermometer.

The principal fluid used in this instrument are Air Alcohol & mercury. Air is used for very delicate experiments, Alcohol for intense cold, & Mercury for all common purposes. The great advantage of mercury is that up to [viz] 212º of Fart it expands equally, which is not the case with most other fluids. In different countries different scales are used, thus in England Farenheat & on the Continent chiefly Celsius or commonly called Centigrade, from its being divided between the freezing and boiling point into a 100º - whilst Fart is in 180º, so that to reduce the former into the latter.

[in margin:] "To reduce different scales"

Cc x 9/5 + 32 = Fart.

In [Reaumoua] it is

R x 9/4 = 32 = Fart.

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[in margin:] "Register Therm"

There is also another kind of Thermometer called a Register, for which purpose they have been, various means invented. Such as this, which is by far the most ingenious & useful.

A is a tube filled with Sp Wine

From B to C is Mercury, C a float & E a wire, placed in the float of one end, & at the other F a pencil.

H a revolving cylinder covered with paper ruled rectically & horizontally. The former for the times & the latter for the degrees. So that the alcohol expanding in A pushes up the float C & with it the pencil F. thus marking the cylinder, which is made to revolve in a certain given time.

[in margin:] "Capacity"

All bodies tend to a diffusion of caloric, yet their capacity for it is by no means the same, thus if equal quantities of mercury & water be mixed together of different Temperatures, the mediums will be nearest that of the water showing that water has the greatest capacity.

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1825        Dr Hopes Chymistry            8 [(5)]

[in margin:] "The power of Conduction

Different bodies conduct with different power, thus From most of & other metals conduct Caloric quickly; whilst fluids are extremely bad conductors.

For example

The ice in B will melt sooner that that in A.

[sketch]

The reason of this is that the water at 40º is at its M Density, & therefore penetrates the stratum of cold water & so reaches [viz] Ice sooner, than the water 212º which is Sply lighter that that at 30º.

This also proves that water only transmits caloric by the motion of the particles themselves, & not by specific conduction.

[in margin:] "The M Density in Salt, fresh water"

The M Density in Salt & fresh water is 7 & 1/2º above each of their freezing points, which is the reason that air passing over the former becomes much colder than when it passes over the latter ? quite incorrect.

N S 50º         6260 above the surface

[do] 55º        4912 of the earth, is

[do] 70         1557 perpetuated congelation

Other Phelosophers have calculated that for 335 feet ascent the Temp diminishes 1º Fart

The cause only is atmosphere nearer the surface is hotter than in higher air is that the lower stratum is more condensed by the great weight of the superior air, therefore does not obey the common law of hotter fluids

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ascending whilst the upper stratum is rarer, & by that reason has a greater capacity for Heat.

[in margin:] "Latent Caloric"

When any body is liquefied, a certain quantity of Caloric is [imbiled] which is not sensible to the Thermometer or as called by Dr Black the discoverer latent.

Also when a liquid becomes solid a great quantity of Heat is evolved, all which Phenomena admirably tend to an equilibrium of Caloric in Nature.

Water when converted into stream increases in bulk 1700. When the weight of the atmosphere is taken off water it boils below at the temperature of the human body; When air is included in a bottle, although shut out from the surrounding atmosphere, yet presses on the inside with a force equal to that which is exerted on the outside, this is carried by the elasticity of the air, which of course when introduced into the vessel is of equal density with the surrounding atmosphere.

Water boils at a lower Temperature in Iron then in glass so that when water is only boiling gently in a glass vessel it will not boil much more rapidly, if a piece of Iron is thrown in.

[in margin:] "Uncorrected facts"

There have been various hypotheses how the atmosphere retains its vapour. Dr. Hopes opinion is that the water is held in solution in the air, like salt in water, -

The atmosphere capacity for water does not decrease in a regular ratio

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as The temperature becomes less, this is the reason why.

Rain is formed when two currents of air of different Temperature meet showing that the capacity of the [mixture] for water is less than its component parts. When very dry this is exposed to moisture it increases in bulk 1/54 but if confined it also increases in elasticity in the same proportion.

[in margin:] "Hygrometer"

Of all the various Hygrometer which have been invented for ascertaining the quantity of moisture in the air Mr Lestre's is one of the most ingenious namely, his differential thermometer having one of its bulbs covered, with muslin dipped in water, which instrument by its fall or rise show the rapidity or slowness of the evaporation of the water.

[in margin:] "Radiation"

Heat is diffused by two ways conduction & radiation. All bodies thrown of heat in right lines, which do not affect the air in their passage and are easily collected into a focus by a lens or [mother], this is called radiation & on which any natural & [phenomena] depend.

Different bodies thrown of heat in this manner with different powers thus a black substance thrown it off requires it quicker than a metallic or resplendent

And Revovery the Black substance at a 100

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The same substance covered vapour radiation

at 98                      All these substance if cooled                   

Glass at 90              below the surrounding air

Read Lead 80           remain Caloric with the same

& metallic sub 12      [precis] as they transmit it.

There have been many doubts whether bodies at the same Temperature radiates, this is [illeg] by many substances as glass, wool, straw, cooling become on a clear night cooler than the ambient atmosphere calmed by their being no clouds to radiate in return

[in margin:] "Glass Valve in Hooths appar"

The Glass Valve in Hooths Apparatus

[a===a] tubes from the upper & lower vessels

[c===b] smaller tubes open at both exs

[illeg] fitted into a a – a a

(d)  a plano-convex piece of glass which plays in the space between c & b its plane surface is ground to the edge of C & its convex is made rough a vegetable blue destroyed by Chlorine becomes red by a further addition of the Blue [replanation] when Sulphurous acid is added to a blue they unite & form a colourless compound but when chlorine is added decomposition causes, the chlorine takes Hydrogen & forms Mu. Ac. the oxygen unites with [dourry] principles form a colourless compound so that upon a farther addition of vegetable blue the muscaria acid exerts its proper action.

[in margin:] "Bleachy form of Chlorine"

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1826. – Dr Hope's Chemistry 10              

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Hopes Chemistry