[15]

[page in the hand of Francis Darwin:]

44

Notes done with

1st Sketch of Species Theory 1842

35pp

(71)

[16]

Every organism, as far as our experience goes, when  tak  bred for some generations under conditions different from those in which it was placed by nature varies.

(1 )

An individual organism placed under new conditions often sometimes varies in a small degree, 1 but & in very trifling respects, such as stature fatness, sometimes colour, health habits in animals & probably disposition.— Most of these slight variations tend to become hereditary Also habits of life develope alter or injure certain parts

(disuse atrophies)=

When the individual is multiplied for long period by buds buds the variation is yet small, seems though greater & occasionally as single bud or individual departs (example) & continues steadily to propagate widely from its type by buds. Such new

When the organism is bred for several generations under new & varying conditions the variation is surest is greater in amount of all kind  & endless in kind — (especially holds good when individual has long been exposed to new conditions) as plants propagated by. There seems to be no part internal or external Beau ideal of liver of  body or mind or habit or mind (PP) or habits, & instincts which does not vary in some small degree & often occurs to a great amount (PP)

continued Variations being congenital born in a race or those very slow acquired as Sect 1 of all kind decidedly evince a tendency to become hereditary.  =when not so forms becomes a simple variety, when it does a race=  

≠Each parent transmits its peculiarities, therefore if (BB) varieties allowed freely to cross except by the chance of two characterized by same peculiarity happening to marry, such varieties will be constantly be demolished.— All bisexual animals must cross— it seems very possible that hermaphrodite animals must cross = Conclusion strengthened  by ill-effects of breeding in, possibly analogous to Good effects of change in Conditions

[16v]

(1)

A.A:

The nature of the external conditions tend to effect some definite change in all or greater part of offspring —little food small size— certain foods hairless &c &c organs effected or diseases —When there are extent unknown.— A certain degree of variation (Müller twins) seems inevitable effects of process of reproduction. But more important is that simple generation, especially under new conditions, where no crossing, infinite variation & no doubt direct effect of external conditions, but only in as much as it effects the reproductive functions.

B.B. When races once formed if individuals of two widely different races varieties be allowed to cross — a third race will be formed — a most fertile source of races the variation in domesticated animals)— If freely allowed the characters pure parents will be lost, number of races thus increased, but difference between them lessened— But if two varieties differing in very slight respects, be allowed to cross — the such small variation will be destroyed ,—at least to our senses— a variation characterized first to be distinguished by long legs, will have offspring not to be so distinguished

Free crossing great agency in producing uniformity in any breed.—

(P.P.) Dispositions vary, instinct —more or less perfect— singular habits are acquired & are hereditary— instincts per force disused, cease being inherited

diseases of certain ages — precocity of mind = silk worms, resemblance in character =

(Sexual differences) & infanticide.

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Therefore if in any one country, or district all animals of one species be allowed freely to cross, if there be any small tendency for in them to vary, such tendency will be constantly counteracted.—

=Secondly reversion to parent form— analogue of vis medicatrix =

But if man selects, then new races rapidly formed— —of late years systematically followed— in most ancient times often practically followed — [Darwin notes to insert B here] In such selected races, if not removed to new conditions & preserved from all cross after several generations become very true like each other & not varying —  (But Man selects only what is useful & curious — has bad judgement is capricious, grudge to destroy those which do not come up to his pattern— takes animal often indefly different from parent forms — has no knowledge power of selecting according to internal variations — can hardly keep his conditions uniform, cannot does not select those best adapted to the conditions, under which form lives, but & those most useful to him—) =This might all be otherwise= V. p. 6. dd & where zz is to be introduced

(B)

By such selection make make race-horse — dray-horse— one cow good for tallow, another for eating &c &c —one plant good large in leaves another in fruit &c &c. — the same plant to supply his wants at different times of year.— Thus animals become adapted to certain ends & pursuits By former means animals become adapted as a direct effect, to a cause to external conditions, as size of body to amount of food — by this latter means they may also be so adapted, but further they may be adapted to ends — pursuits which by no possibility can effect their nature growth. —as existence of Man cannot tallow chandles, cannot tend to make fat

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(B)

= Amount of variation =

Begin. perhaps for Sect (1). p. 6 of written. M. S.

(NO)

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(3

Ch II.

B

Let us see how far above principles of variation apply to wild animals.

Wild animals vary exceedingly little.— yet they are known as individuals.— British Plants — in many genera number quite uncertain of varieties & species =in shells chiefly extreme conditions — Primrose & cowslip.— wild animals from different countries can be recognized — specific character gives some organs as varying= Variations analogous in kind, but less in degree with domesticated animals — chiefly extreme & less important parts

Our experience wd lead us to expect that any & every one of these organisms would vary if taken by Man & placed under new conditions—

Geology proclaims a constant round of change, bringing into play by every [epoch] changes of climate, & the death of preexisting inhabitants, endless varieties of new conditions — these generally very slow doubtful though probable how far the slowness would counteract produce tendency to vary — But Geology shows change in configuration, wh. together with the accident of air & water & means of transportal, which every being possesses must occasionally bring rather suddenly organisms to new conditions & expose it for several generations— Hence we should expect every now & then a wild form to vary, possibly this may be cause of some species varying more than others — According to nature of new conditions, so we might expect all or majority of organisms born under them to vary in some definite way (corresponding to Sect    ) Further we might expect that the mould in which they are cast wd likewise vary in some small degree;— but is there any means of selecting those offspring, which vary in the same manner crossing them & keeping their offspring separate & thus producing selected races, otherwise as the wild animals freely cross, so must such small heterogeneous variation be constantly counterbalanced & lost & a uniformity of character kept up preserved. The former variation as the direct & necessary effects of all causes, which we can see can act on them, as size of body from amount of food, effect of certain kinds of food or certain parts of bodies &c &c; such new varieties may then become adopted to the external natural agencies, which act on them. But how

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can varieties be produced adapted to ends, which cannot possibly influence their structure & which it is absurd to look as effects of chance.—

Can varieties like some var of domesticated animals, like almost all wild species, be produced adapted by exquisite means to prey on one animal or to escape from another — or rather, as it puts out of question effects of intelligence & habits, can a plant become adapted to animals, as a plant whose structure is such canot be impregnated without agency of insect, or hare hooked seeds, depending on animals — existence of woolly animals canot have any direct effect on seeds of a plant.— This is point wh. all theories, about climate adapting woodpecker to gnaw up trees—, or hab. misseltoe— But if every part of a plant or animal was to vary infinitesmall, & if a being, over immense being infinitely more sagacious than man (not an omniscient creator) being, during thousands & thousands of year were to select, all the variation which tended towards a certain ends (, or were to produce causes which tended to this same end, for unless if he foresees a Canine animal would be better off, owing to the country producing more hares, if he were longer legged & keener sight— greyhound produced— if he saw that aquatic skinned toes if for some unknown causes he found it would advantage a plant, where like most plants is occasionally visited by bees.— (a) &c if that plants seed were occasionally eaten by birds & thus were carried on to rotten trees, he might select those with fruit more agreeable to the such birds as perched to ensure their being carried to trees, if he perceived these birds may often dropped the seeds, he might well have selected a bird who tended to haunt rotten trees or select plants who had power to live in less & less rotten trees.—

Who seeing how plants vary in garden what blind  foolish Man has done in few years, will deny an all-seeing being in thousands of years could effect  ≠if the Creator chose to do so ≠— either by his own direct foresight or by intermediate means — which with respect to Creator of this universe Seems usual means zz p. 2 ??.— Be it remembered Be it remembered I have nothing to say about life & monad & all forms descending from a common type (B) I speak of the variation of the existing great divisions of the organized kingdom; how far I would go, hereafter will be seen.— (Such selected varieties, wd not vary. would be very 'true' ≠ Before considering whether there does exist any law of selecting, let us sterile

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(a) Seeing that rotten wood was a station lost.

(B) good place to introduce (saying reasons hereafter to be seen) how far I extend theory. Say to all Mammalia reasons growing weaker & weaker.

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Natural Selection

Decandoelle war of nature — seeing contented face of nature may be well at first doubted we see it on borders of perpetual cold — But considering the enormous geometrical power of increase in every organism, & in every country in ordinary cases must be stocked to full extent, reflection will show that this is case — Malthus on Man — in animals no moral cheque restrain — they breed in time of year when provisions most abundant, or seasons most favourable every country has its climate seasons — oscillating calculate Ratios.= oscillating from years of destruction.— if proof were wanted, let any singular change of climate hear how astoundingly some tribes increase also introduced animals this pressure is always ready capacity of alpine plants to endure other climates — think of endless seeds scattered abroad— a thousand wedges are being forced into the Œconomy of nature = This requires much reflection; gos study Malthus & calculate rates of increase & remember the resistance is only periodical —

 

The unavoidable effect of this that many of every species are either destroyed, either in egg, or young or mature (that the former states the more common) — Now in those organisms, every part of parent which tends to vary very slightly, slightly monstrous in the course of a thousand generations infinitesimally small differences must inevitably tell,— when the immeasurably cold winter, or hot, or dry summer comes then out of the whole body of individuals of any species, if there be the smallest differences in their structure, habits, instinct, senses health, &c or will on the average tell— & as conditions change, a rather larger proportion will be preserved— so if the chief check to increase falls on seeds or eggs, so will in the course of 1000 generations or ten 1000, those seeds (take one with down to fly) which fly furthest & get scattered most will ultimately rear most plants, & such small differences tend to be hereditary like shades of expression in human countenance: so if one perch fish deposits its eggs in infinitesimally different circumstances, as in shallower or deeper water &c &c so will this tell

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Before considering whether be any Natural Means of selection, & secondly. (which forms the 2d Part of this sketch) the far more important point, whether the characters & relation of animated are such as favour the idea of there wild species being races, descended from a common stock, as the varieties of Potato or Dahalia, or cattle have so descended.— let us consider probable character of selected races wild varieties.

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Let Hares increase very slowly from change of climate affecting peculiar plants, & some other animals rabbit decrease in same proportion let this unsettle organization of a canine animal— who formerly derived its chief sustenance by springing on rabbits or smelling them by scent, must decrease too & so might thus readily been exterminated, but if its form varied very slightly, the large-legged fleet ones, during a thousand years being selected & the less fleet rigidly destroyed. Must (if no law of nature be opposed to it alter form.)— remember how soon Bakewell on this same principle altered cattle & Western Sheep— carefully avoiding a cross with any breed.— (pidgeons)  (dd) Nature variation far less — but such selection far more rigid & scrutinizing— z.p.2

(a)

Nature lets the animal live, till on actual proof it is found less able to do the required work to serve the desired end, Man judges solely by his eye, & knows not whether nerve, muscles, arteries, are developed in proportion to the change of external form.— V. p 7

 

Besides selection by death in bisexual animals another selection in time of fullest vigour — namely struggle of Males — even in animals wh. pare, there seems a surplus & a battle, possibly as in man, more males produced than females — struggle of war or charms.— hence that male, which at that time is in fullest vigour, or best armed with the arms or ornaments of its species, will gain in hundred of generations some small advantage & send transmit such characters to its offspring — So in females rearing its young, the most vigorous, & skillful, or industrious, or whose instincts best developed will leave more young, probably possessing her good qualities, & a greater number will thus prepared for the struggle of nature.— Compared to man using a male alone of good breed.— This latter section only of limited application, applies to variation of specific sexual characters.—

Introduce here contrast with Lamarck— absurdity of habit, or chance, ⸮ ⸮or external conditions making a woodpecker adapted to trees—

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(a) Mans races not even so well only not better adapted to conditions than other races — but often not one race adapted to its conditions — as man keeps & propagates some alpine plants in garden

(dd) We cannot suppose that one plant tends to vary in fruit & another in flower & foliage — some have been selected for both fruit & flower— that one animal varies in its covering & another not. another with its milk— take any organism & ask what is it useful for & on that point it will b found to vary.— cabbages in their leaf.— corn in size quality of grain, both in times of year — kidney beans for young pod &c cotton for envelope of seeds &c &c. — dogs in intellect courage fleetness & small — — pidgeons in peculiarities approaching to monsters.

{This requires consideration — should be introduced in First Chapter if it holds I believe it does. It is hypothetical at best.

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 Before considering difficulties of theory of selection let us consider character of the var races produced as now explained by nature Their character & sterility when crossed, & generally a greater amount of difference are two main features, which distinguish domestic races from species. conditions have varied slowly —  & the organisms best adapted in their whole course of life to the changed conditions have always been selected — Man selects small dogs & afterwards gives it a profusion of food — selects a long-backed & short legged breed & gives it no particular exercise to suit this function &c &c — in ordinary cases nature has not allowed her races to be contaminated with a cross of another races & agriculturists know how difficult they find always to prevent this. — effect would be trueness 

Sterility not universal, admitted by all — Gladiolus, Crinium, Calceolaria must be species if there be such a thing = Races of dogs & oxen = but certainly very general; indeed [illeg] a gradation of sterility most perfect very gradual—some nearest species will not cross. (crocus some heath) — some genera cross readily (fowls & grouse, pea cocks &c).— X Hybrids no ways monstrous, quite perfect except secretions — hence even the mule has bred — Character of sterility, especially a few years ago, when thought very much more universal, than it now is has been thought the distinguishing character — indeed it is obvious if all forms freely crossed — Nature wd be a chaos— But the very gradation of this character even if it always existed in some degree which it does wd render it improbable, as masking things supposed distinct as species. X Will analogy throw any light on the fact, of the supposed races of nature, being sterile, though none of the domestic ones are. It appears probable Mr Herbert Koelreuter have observed shewn, external differences will not guide one in knowing whether hybrids will be fertile or not, but the chief circumstance is constitutional

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(8

differences, such as being adapted to different climate or soil, difference which must probably effect the whole body of the organ ism & not any one part.—  Now if wild animals, taken out of their natural conditions, seldom breed.— I do not refer to shows or to Zoological. Soc where any animals unite, but breeds, & others will never unit, but to wild animals caught & kept quite tame left loose & well fed about houses & living many years =Hybrids produced almost as readily as pure bred= . —  St Hilaires great distinction of tame & Domestic — Elephant — ferrets. (a) Reproductive organs not subject to diseases in Zoolog. Gardens — Dissection & microscope show that a hybrid is in exactly same condition as another animal in the intervals of breeding season, or those animals which taken wild & not bred in domesticity, remain without breeding their whole lives—  why

When animal is domesticated & breeds, productive power increased from more food & selection of fertile races=

As far as animals go might be thought effects on their mind & as special case.— but turning to plants we find same class of facts … do not refer to seeds not ripening, perhaps the commonest cause, but to plants not setting, which either is owing to some imperfection of ovule or pollen.— Lindley says sterility is the alm curse bane of all the propagators — Linnæus about alpine plants. American bog plants. — pollen in exactly same state as in hybrids but in India a species same in Geraniums— Persian Lilac & Syringa will not seed in Italy & England.— Probably double plants & all fruit owe their tendency to sterility to developed parts primarily to sterility & extra food, then applied— There is here gradation sterility & then parts , like diseases, are transmissible hereditarily— We cannot assign any cause We know not on all circumstances these facts depend, why ferret breeds & cheetah in India will not Elephant & Pig & why Pontic azalea produce plenty of pollen & not America why common Lilac seed & not Persian= — We see no difference in healthiness. — Now in crossing 

Hybrids not Monsters

Mule has bred

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grouse & fowls, =partridge & pheasants=

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 it is certain every peculiarity in form & constitution is transmitted.— an alpine plant transmits its alpine tendency to its offspring an American plant its American -bog constitution— & animals those peculiarities, on which when placed out of their natural condition, they refuse are incapably of breed; & moreover they transmit every part of their constitution, their respiration, their pulse, their instincts, which are all suddenly modified, can it be wondered at that they refuse & are incapable of breeding — I think it may be truly said, it wd be more wonderful if they did —But it may be asked, why has not Man the recognised varieties, refused to breed — man selects from mere external form, & though he has adapted some forms to climates, of supposed to have been produced through the means of man, not refused to breed. as Herefordshire & there have all bred; variation depends. on change of conditions & selection as far as mans systematic or ⁁ unsystematic selection gone, he takes external forms, has little power from ignorance. over internal invisible constitution differences — he has tried on Races which have long been domesticated & have much varied, are precisely those, which were capable of bearing great changes, whose ⁁ (P) constitution was adapted to a diversity of climates — Nature changes slowly & by degrees. = If case of dogs & cattle of India According to many authors Probably breeds of dogs are rather case of modified species freely crossing = There is no variety which increased has been rigour adapted to peculiar spoil or situation for a thousand years & which could be rigorously adapted to another, till such can be produced; the question is not tried =

(P)  Man in past ages, could transport into different climates, animals & plants which wd freely propagate in such new climates — nature could effect, with selection, such changes slowly, so that precisely those animals, which are adapted to submit to great changes, have given rise to diverse races. & indeed great doubt on this head. —

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an has worked on those species useful to him & that very usefulness depends on innate adaption to drier conditions so that in just the species, which wd not likely to produce infertile progeny &

explain contingently why hybrid vertebrates appear are rarer than they wd than in plants

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Before leaving this subject, well to observe, that it was shown that small a certain amount of variation is consequent of exposure of an organism to new conditions or mere act of reproduction, both by buds & sexually — is vastly increased, when parents exposed for some generations to new conditions, & we now find, that many animals when exposed for first time to very new conditions, are as incapable of breeding as hybrids.— It probably bears also on supposed fact of crossed animals, when not infertile, as in mongrels, tendency to vary much; as likewise seems to be the case, where true hybrids possess just sufficient fertility to propagate with the parent breeds & inter se for some generations. This is Koelreuter's belief.—

These facts throw, light on each other & support the truth of each other we see throughout a connection between the reproductive faculties & exposure to changed conditions of life. whether by crossing or exposure of the individuals.—

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Difficulties on theory of selection (aa)

7 12

In di It may be objected, such perfect organs as eye & ear, could never be formed; in latter less difficulty as gradation more perfect at first appears monstrous & to end appears difficulty — But think of gradation, even now manifest, (Tibia & Fibula) (A) we may everyone will allow if every fossil, preserved gradation infinitely more perfect for possibility of selection a perfect gradation is required — different groups of structure, slight gradation in each group — every analogy renders it probable that intermediate forms have existed.— Be it remembered what strange metamorphoses, parts of eye, not directly connected with vision, might come to be thus used gradually to be worked in for this end — swimming bladder by gradation of structure is admitted =Rattle snake= to belong to the ear system.— In some cases gradation not possible— Woodpecker best adapted to climb as vertebræ — actually vary in domestic animals, less difficult if growth followed. Looking to whole animal. a Bat, formed not for flight — suppose we had flying fish & not one of our now called flying fish preserved. who wd have guessed intermediate habits — Woodpeckers & Tree Frogs — both live in countries where no trees.— Fr

The gradation by which each individual organs have arrived at its present state; & each individual animal with its aggregate of organs has arrived probably never will could be known & present great difficulties — I merely wish to show, that the proposition is not so monstrous as it at first appears, & that if good reasons can be advanced for believing that species have varied descended from common parents, the difficulty of imagining intermediate form of structure not sufficient to make one at once reject the theory.— 

The mental powers of different animals in wild & tame state present still greater difficulties: require a separate section. Be it remembered I have nothing to do with origin of memory, attention, & the different faculties of the mind, but merely with their differences—

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To effect a complicated organ.— perfect gradation required to see how this might have been effected we may look to the same organ in different animals — the way (on my theory) it must have been effected could only be told by a perfect series of ancestors.

To effect a complicated organism— perfect gradation of whole animal organism is required.— to see how this might have been effected we may look to the same organ in different animals — the way (on my theory) it must have been effected could only be told by a perfect series of ancestors.

(Chapter) Before recapitulating, follow line of argument pursued towards end of last Ch & consider whether any structures of any one organ, or the united structure of any individual, is of such a nature as to justify the rejection of theory as impossible— I repeat III, Part treats of probability— Granting all that I argue I confess that eye — Let me here premise that when looking to series & X

{ Picking out the condition of any one organ in different groups— only shows us what X is possible & & in only one some few degree (though an important one) better than conjecturing the forms which that organ may have gone through — of course possibly

This is the method of Bridgewater Treatises — the known so small to the unknown— 

Allude to advantage being taken of Chapter of Accidents during lapses of enormous periods hooks to seeds

As Pitcher Plant & Cabbage

ruff to pigeons

short legs of Turnspit

extra toe of Dorking Fowls

Amusing,

to Compare eye with a ship

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in each of the great divisions of nature.— Disposition, courage, pertinacity,,. suspicion, restlessness & reverse, ill-temper, sagacity are unquestionably vary in animals & are inherited (Cuba wildness Dogs— rabbits) — Habits partly corporeal — (Fear against particular object as man Galapagos) breeding season &c time of going to rest &c vary & are hereditary, like the analogous habits of plants which vary & are inherited — Habits of body, as manner of movement — do & do.— Habits as pointing & setting, on certain occasions —do = Taste for hunting certain objects,— & manner of doing so— sheep-dog — These are shown clearly by crossing & their analogy with true instincts thus shown.—

Retriever — mingled with reason.—  Do not know objects for which they do it. Ld Brougham definition — Origin partly habit but the amount necessary unknown partly selection — tumbling pigeons — Sheep going back to place where born= Reason Instincts aided by reason— =as in Taylor bird= =as are their habits= Taught by parents cows choosing food ≠birds singing≠

 

Instincts vary in wild state birds get wilder. often lost; more perfect — nest without roof. Wild Disposition varies

 

These facts only clear way, they show how incomprehensibly brain has power of transmitting intellectual operations,— = insert this sentence after good of crossing =

 

Faculties, distant from true instincts —finding way — It must I think, be admitted that habits, whether congenital or acquired by practice sometimes often become inherited. I & therefore instincts influence, equally with structure the preservation of animals, therefore selection must here, with changing conditions, tend to select modify the instincts & inherited habits, of animals. If this be admitted it will be found not possible, that many of the strongest instincts may be thus acquired.—  I may observe without attempting definition, that an inherited or trick habit trick because may be born fullfills

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closely what we mean by instinct — A habit is often performed unconsciously the strangest habits become associated, do tricks going in certain spots &c &c even against will is excited by external agencies, & looks not to the end a person playing a pianoforte with — if such a habit were transmitted, it would mark a marvellous instinct.

Before Let us (Confess difficulty) considering some of the most difficult, cases of instincts, whether they could be possibly acquired, I do not say probably for that belongs to our III Part I beg this may be remembered., nor do I mean to attempt to show exact means method. I want only to show that whole theory ought not at once to be rejected on this score—

(Every instinct must by my theory have been acquired gradually by slight changes either by habit &c of finer instinct, each change being useful to its then species. — shamming death struck me at first as remarkable objection, I found none really sham death — & that there is gradation —now no one doubts that those insects which do it, either more or less, do it for some good, then any species was led to do it more, & these escaped .— — &c &c. — — Take migratory instincts animals have notion of time ≠like savages≠, faculty distinct from instinct — ordinary finding way by memory, = faculty of knowing time= but how does savage find way across country = as in comprehensible to us; as animal to them. —geological changes— fishes in river— =case of sheep in Spain = ——

Architectural instincts in manufacture employee is making simple articles, extending skill.— often said seems to make it almost instinctively child born with such a notion of playing — we can fancy tayloring acquired in same perfection — mixture of reason — water-ouzel— taylor-bird— gradation from simple nest to most complicated —

Bees again distinction of faculty — how they make hexagon — Waterton theory — the impulse to use whatever faculty they possess — if the taylor made coat bird has the faculty of sewing with beak— instinct impels him to do it.

(5th) Last case of parent feeding young with different food— take case of Galapagos Birds gradation from [illeg] to [illeg] selection & habit might lead old birds to vary taste &

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(14

feeding their young with same food— or I see no difficulty in parents being forced or induced to vary the food brought & selection adapting their young ones to it — & thus by degrees any amount of diversity might be arrived at. (A) Although we can never hope to see the course revealed, by which different instincts have been acquired., for we have only present animals (not well known) to judge of the course of gradation, yet once grant the principle of habits whether congenital or acquired by experience being inherited & I can see no limit to the amount of variation extraordinariness of the habits thus acquired—

——————

Summing up this Division. —If variation be admitted to occur occasionally in some wild animals, & how can we doubt it, when we see all thousands organisms, for whatever use taken by man, do vary — if we admit such variations tend to be hereditary — & how can we doubt it, when we resemblances of feather & character — disease & monstrosities inherited —& endless races produced (1200 cabbages) — if we admit selection is steadily at intervals not daily but often at work & who will doubt it, when he considers amount of food on an average fixed & reproductive powers act in geometrical ratio; then races occasionally ad if we admit, that external conditions vary. as all geology proclaims they have done & are now doing— then, as far as our reason goes if no law of nature be opposed, there must occasionally perhaps be variation formed races, slightly differing from the parent races —Is there any such law, none is known, but in all works it is assumed, that in flat contradistinction to all known facts, that the amount of possible variation is soon acquired — Are not all

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(When young feed themselves selection wd go on, as in old animals.

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the most varied species, the oldest domesticated — who thinks that horses or cows could be produced — Take Dahlia & Potato, who will pretend in 5000 years — perfectly adapted to conditions & then again brought into varying conditions — think what has been done in few last years— look at pigeons, at cattle. It is impossible to say we know the limit of variation; with the amount of food man can produce he may have arrived at limit of fatness, or size, or thickness of wood, but these are the most trivial points, but even in these I conclude & therefore with the adapting selecting powers of nature infinitely wise compared to those of Man, that it is impossible to say we know the limit of races, which would be "true" kind, if of different constitution would probably be infertile one with another, & which might be adapted in the much simpler, & admirable manner, according to their wants, to external nature, & to other surrounding organisms— such races would be species— But are have is there any evidence Species been thus produced, this is a question wholly independent of all previous points, & which on examination of the kingdom of nature scarcely will ought to answer some one way or another. —

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Part III

I may presume, that according to the view ordinarily received, the myriads of animals organisms, peopling this world have been created by so many distinct acts of creation. We can As we know nothing of the individual acts of will of a Creator — & therefore we can see no reason why there should  exist any relation between the organisms thus created, or again w they might be created according to any scheme; but it would be marvellous if this scheme should be the same as wd result from the descent of groups of organisms from certain the same parents, according to the circumstances, just attempted to be developed. The astronomer With equal probability did old cosmologist say fossils were created, as we now see them, with a false resemblance to living beings; or what would the, the Astronomer  might say to the doctrine that the planets moved according to the law of gravitation, but in consequence, but from the Creator having willed each separate planet to move in its particular orbit —I believe such a proposition, (if we remove all prejudices) wd be as legitimate, as to say admit. that the certain groups of living & extinct organisms in their distribution, in their structure & in their relations one to another & to external conditions, agreed with the theory & showed signs of common descent & yet were created distinct: Until some method was known by which organisms cd because adopt  As long as it was thought impossible that organisms should, vary, or show any how recei become adapted to other organisms in a complicated manner— & yet be separated from them by the a impassable barrier of sterility, this it was justifiable to admit even with some appearances in favor of a common descent distinct creations according to the will of a omniscient Creator, or for it  the same things to say with  Whewell the subjects that the beginnings of all

[32]

things shall pass the comprehension of man. In the former sections, I have endeavoured to show that such variations or specification  is not impossible, nay in many points of view is absolutely possible.— What then is the evidence in favour of it & what the evidence against it. : With our imperfect knowledge of past ages, (any past begun) Surely there will be some it would be strange if the imperfection did not create some unfavourable evidence.

{Give sketch of (this Part —beginning— with facts appearing hostile, under present knowledge — then proceed to geograph. distribut — order of appearance— affinities — morphology — & &. — 

BB

Our theory requires a very gradual introduction of new forms & exterminations of the old (to which we shall revert). The extermination old may sometimes be rapid, but never the introduction

In the groups descended from common parent, our they require a perfect gradation not differing more than breeds of cattle, or potatoes or cabbages in forms — I do not mean be that a graduated series of animals, not differing must have existed, connecting intermediate between horse mouse tapir, elephant — or fowls & peacock, but that these must have had a common parent & between horse & this parent & & but the common parent may probably have differed more from either, that the two do, now from each other.— Now what evidence of this is there?— So perfect gradation in some departments, that some naturalists have thought that in some large divisions if all existing forms were collected a near approach to perfect gradation wd be made — but such a notion is preposterous with respect to all, but evidently so with Mammals, other Naturalists have thought this would be so, if all the specimens

[32v]

(read on few next pages)

Geology portrays a vast number of forms have existed, these all fall into present classes or between them. Metaphor of net, oldest forms of each group. apt to fall into most divided parts— a progress towards completing series— some naturalists think in certain groups now perfect — & & see.

Now our theory requires perfect gradation like cattle. — explain why geology does not give in perfect series (&c &c &c ⁁ middle of p. 19)

The foregoing arguments which show that (first) formations are distinct merely from want of fossils & secondly that each formation is full of gaps has been advanced to account for fewness of preserved organisms compared to what have lived on this world — The very same argument explained why in older formations, the organisms appear to come on & disappear suddenly.— becoming rare & disappearing — some have disappeared, within Mans time — It is obvious that our theory requires gradual & nearly uniform introduction, possibly more sudden extermination = subsidence of continent of Australia &c &c =

Then will come PP back of p. 19

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emtombed in the strata were collected.— I conceive there is no, probability whatever of this; nevertheless it is certain all the numerous fossil forms fall in, as Buckland remarks not present classes families & genera or they fall between them; so is it with new discoveries of existing forms.— ( Most ancient fossils that is most separated by space of time are most apt to fall between the classes — (also but organisms from those countries most separated by space also fall between the classes Ornithorhyncus??).

How As far as geological discoveries, they tend towards such gradation. illustrate it with net. Toxodon  tibia & fibula =dog & otter = but if we h so utterly improbable is in ex. get. Pachydermata to compare series as perfect as cattle that if, as many geologists seem to think infer, on bones of that each separate formation present even an approach to a consecutive history my theory must be given up. (B) even if it were consecutive, it wd only collect series of one district in our present state of knowledge — but what probability is there that a series of any one formation — this gives during (z) will generally present a consecutive history.— Compare number living at one period to fossils preserved — look at enormous periods of time, thousands, Fossils will be Referring only to marine animals, which are obviously most likely to be preserved, they where sediment (of a kind favourable for preservation not sand or pebbles) in depositing quickly & over large areas & must be thickly capped under littoral deposits, for otherwise denudation — they must live in a shallow space which sediment will tend to fill up.— if any [illeg] subsidence — favourable, accords with facts of European deposits = (Q)

≠ but subsidence apt to destroy agents wh. produce sediment.

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B- gaps = Tertiary = Devonian Permian = +

(z) during the immense period, it has elapsed during each period =

{ Be it remembered this whole Tertiary corresponds to one formation — this gives one grand idea & see how broken is Tertiary

(Q) Think of immense differences in nature of European deposits — without interposing new causes — think of time required by present slow changes, to cause on very same area — such diverse deposits — iron — sand — chalk sand, coral — clay. !!

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 I believe safely inferred groups of marine fossils only preserved for future ages, where sediment goes on long continent & rather rapid but not too rapid deposition in area of subsidence.— in how few places & at in any one d region like Europe will these contingencies be going on— here in past ages mere gaps pages preserved. Lyells doctrine carried to extreme — we shall understand difficulty if it be asked (a)

(PP) (Before PP read back of p 17)

Our theory requires that the first form which existed of each of the great divisions. would present point intermediate between existing ones.— or so diverse as be hardly true relation but immensely different — Most geologists believe Silurian fossils are those wh. first existed, in whole world not those which have chanced to be the oldest not destroyed — or the fish which existed in profoundly deep seas in progress of conversion from sea to land. if they are first, they give up— — Not so Hutton or Lyell — first reptiles of Red Sea really was first what existed— if Pachyderm of Paris were first it existed — fish of Devonian diagram 18 of Lias — for we cannot suppose them the progenitors — they agree too closely with existing divisions.— But geologists consider Europe as a passage from ocean to isld to continent.— (except Weldon v. Lyell) these animals therefore I consider their mere introduction from continents long since submerged.

[34v]

(a) what chance of series of gradation between cattle being distinct at age here as far back, as miocene. We know these cattle existed — Compares number of living — immense duration of each periods— fewness of fossils — 

(this only refers to consecutiveness of history of organisms of each formation

PP. Geology tells us in oldest rocks fragments hitherto discovered, genera of recent shells— tels tells us first insect of Eocene was a perfect Libellula— first Mammalian a Didelphys — first fish an highly organized kind— Our theory requires so & so — make them accord Silurian first not metamorphosed, other or in bottom of ocean — other cases first introduced =

I may add that if beds far beneath Silurian could be found, or lacrustine deposits of that age, that as the older the fossils are often the more intermediate in character — so would the net be rendered More perfect.—

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Finally if views of some geologists be correct, my theory must be given up.— Lyells views as far as they go are in favour, but they go so little in favour, & so much more is required, that it may viewed as objection — if geology presents, us with mere pages towards end of the history in chapters  ,—formed by tearing out bundles of leaves — & each page illustrating merely a small portion of the animals organisms of that X time — the facts accord perfectly with my theory.— 

(EE)

{ We know state of earth has changed, & as earthquakes elevations & subsids  & tides go on, the state must change ≠ many geologists believe in slow gradual cooling ≠ now let us see in accordance with principles of variation specification explained in Sect 11, how species would probably introduced & how such results accord with what is known.— 

From study of Tertiary The first fact geology proclaims is immense amou number of extinct forms — & new appearances = Tertiary strata lead to belief, that forms gradually become rare & disappear & are gradually supplied by others — we see some forms now becoming rare & disappearing, we know of no sudden creation — in older periods the forms appear to come in suddenly scene shifts — but even here Devonian, Permian &c keep on supplying new links in chain— Genera & higher forms come on & disappear in same way leaving a species on one or or more stages below that in which the forms abounded

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            (Extermination)

EE We have seen that in later periods the organisms have disappeared by degrees & perhaps probably by degrees in earlier & I have said our theory requires it, as many naturalists seem to think extermination a most mysterious circumstance & call in astonishing agencies —

÷ fossils become rare possibly sudden exterminations as Australia, but as present means very slow & many means of escape I shall doubt whether very sudden exterminations — who can explain why same species abounds more — why does major titmouse or ring-ouzel how little change — why is one sea-slug rare & another common on our coasts. —why one species of Rhinoceros more than another — why is black tiger of India so rare.

it is well to {recall, what we have shewn concerning the struggle of nature.— an exterminating agency is at work with every organisms — we see scarcely see it— if robins wd increase to thousands in ten years, how severe must this process    be. how imperceptible a small increase. —

curious & general source of error — The place of an organism is instantly filled up.

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Let us consider the absolute state of distribution of organisms of earths face (A) Referring chiefly, but not exclusively (from difficulty of transport, fewness & the distinct characteristics of groups)  (A) to Mammalia & first considering the three or 4 main regions divisions— North America, Europe. Asia. including greater part of E. Ind. Archipelago, & Africa are intimately allied. Africa most distinct, especially most southern parts— & the Arctic regions nb. write N. America, Asia & Europe only separated (if we travel one way by — Behring St) by a narrow strait is most intimately all allied, indeed forms but one restricted group.— =Correspondence in hot parts, marshes & aquatic Parts= Next comes S. America.— Then Australia — Madagascar (& some small isld which stand very remote from other land) ?? — give example as genera Looking at these main divisions separately the organisms vary according to changes in condition, of different parts; but besides this, barrier of every kind seems to spe separate regions in a greater degree, than proportionally to the difference of climates, on each side — these great chains of mountains, spaces of seas between islands & continents, even great rivers & deserts, In fact the amount difference in the organisms bears a certain, but not invariable relation to the amount of physical difficulties to transit. (zzz) Give the case of mountains, then the exceptions — Also isld. even neighbouring isld—

There are some curious exceptions, namely similarity of Fauna of Mountains of Europe & N. America & Lapland— other cases just seven mountains of Eastern S. America.— Altai. (?). S. India(?) — Mountainous summits of No islands often eminently peculiar. (B) I am here led to observe one or more centres of creation (The simple geologist can explain many of the foregoing case of distribution facts— subsidence of a continent in which free means of dispersal, would leave drive the lowland plants up to the  Mountains, now converted into isld. & the semi-alpine plants would take place of alpine & alpine be destroyed, if mountains originally were not of great height.— so we may see during gradual changes of climate, on a continent the propation of species wd vary & adapt themselves to small changes causing much extermination. Europe wer The Mountains of Europe were quite lately covered with ice & the lowlands probably

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(zzz) (⸮ would it be more striking if we took the animals— take Rhinoceros & study their habitats)

(A). Discuss one or more centres of creation — allude strongly to facilities of dispersal & amount of geological change— allude to mountain summits afterwards to be referred to.— The distribution varies, as everyone knows, according to adaptation, explain going fr N. to S. how we come to first group of species in the same general region, but besides this we find difference, according to greatness of barriers, in greater proportion than can be well accounted for by adaptation — This very striking, when we think of cattle of Pampas. Plants &c &c Then go into discussion, this holds genera all with the 3 or 4 main divisions as well as the endless minor ones in each of their 4 great ones — In these I chiefly, refer to Mammalia &c &c

[in margin:] the similarity of type but not in species in same continent has been much less insisted on than the dissimilarity of different great regions generarally it is more striking

(Next Page)

(B) When similar of same type as Rhinoceros, & these again of Indian type.— so is it on continent deserts of temperate S America compared with S Africa.— Tropics of do —monkeys. &c &c. Galapagos Isd Tristan D'. Acunha.— Volcanic isld. covered with craters we know lately did not support any organisms How unlike these islds in nature to neighbouring lands— These facts perhaps more striking than almost any others.—

Geology apt to affects geography,— therefore we ought to expect to find the above — Geological-geographic distrib — In looking to past times we find Australia equally distinct. S. America was distinct, though with more forms in common— N. America its nearest neighbour more in common — in some respects more in some less allied to Europe.— Europe we find equally Europæan.— for Europe is more part of Asia though not possessing exam =Africa unknown= examples, Elephant Rhinoceros Hippopotamus Hyæna — As geology destroys geography we cannot be surprised in going far back we find Marsupials & Edentata in Europe. but geology destroys geography =

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probably partaking of the Arctic climate & Fauna, then when as climate changed — arctic fauna wd take place of ice & an inundation of plants from different temperate countries seize of the lowlands, leaving isld of aortic forms but if this had happened on an isld, whence could the new forms have come — here the geologist calls in creationists — If isld formed, the geologist will suggest many of the forms might have been borne from nearest land, but if peculiar, he call in Creationist.— as such isld rises in height &c he still more calls in creation— The creationist tells one, on a fleeting spot the American spirit of creation makes Orpheus & Tyrannus & American doves; = & in accordance with past & extinct forms = Yet no persistent relation between areas & distribution:= =Geologico-Geograph.— Distribution=

(A)

Let us recall the conditions

Now according to analogy of domesticated animals let us see what wd result. Let us take case of Farmer on Pampas, where everything approaches nearer to state of nature He works on organisms having strong tendency to vary: & he knows only way to make a distinct breed is to select & separate.— it would be useless to separate the best bulls & pair with best cows if their offspring run loose with & breed with the other herds & tendency to reversion not counteracted he would endeavour therefore to get rincon or islands & then commence his work of selection. If several farmers in different "rincones" were to set to work, especially if with different objects several breeds wd soon be produced.— (So would it be with the horticulturalist & so history of every plant shows.— the number of varieties increase in proportion to care bestowed on their separation & selection &— with crossing plants separation.—) Now according to this analogy during a change of external conditions, let a wild animal vary & if & isolation either by chance landing a form on an isld or subsidence dividing a continent or great chain of mountains & the number of organisms individuals not being numerous to favour so as by crossing to obliterate selection (a) will best favour variation & selection — no doubt changes could be effected in same country without any barrier by long continued selection on one species — even in case of a plant not capable of crossing wd easier get possession & solely occupy a isld..—  Now we can at once see that two parts of a continent isolated new species thus generated in them would

(No one wd expect a set of similar varieties to be produced in the different countries, so species, different.)

(M.) (M)

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A =number of species not related to capabilities of the country= furthermore not always those best adapted perhaps explained by creationists by changes in progress.

Although geologist Creationist can explain by help of geology much, how can he in the explain the varying marked relation of past & present in some area, the varying relation in other cases, between past & present, the relation of the different parts of same great area — if isld of totally different organization to adjoining continents — if quite differ on mountain summits— the number of individuals not being related to capabilities, & how except of supposition, the effects of barriers &c. When they, I believe, can throw much light & all facts accord—

(a) The circumstances parent of this an organism, we may generally suppose to be in less favourable condition than the selected offspring & therefore generally in fewer numbers— (This is not borne out by horticulture, mere hypothesis— as an organism in favourable conditions might by selection be considered adapted to still more favourable conditions)

{M. M. Barrier wd further act in preventing species formed in one part migrating to another part.

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have closest affinities like cattle in Counties of England, if barrier afterwards destroyed one species might destroy the other, or both keep their ground — so if isld formed near let it be ever so different continent, that continent would supply inhabitants, often va & new species (like the old) would be allied with that continent. An isld generally very different soil & climate & number & order of inhabitants supplied by chance, no point so favourable for generation of new species — especially the mountains hence, so it is An isolated mountain formed in a plain country if such happens is an isld. — As other islds formed sp the old species would spread & thus extend & the fauna of distant isld might ultimately meet on a continent formed between them — No one doubts continents formed by repeated elevation & depressions— In looking backwards but not so far, that all geographical boundaries are destroyed we can thus at once see why existing forms are related to the extinct in the same manner as existing ones are in same part of existing continent =By chance we might even have one or two absolute parent fossils= (P)

Therefore The distribution therefore in the above enumerated points  even the trivial ones which is so remarkable & so inexplicable as adaptation receives On simple & most obvious manner reflection, on the theory of the occurrence mutability of species not slowly mutate & bec adapted by selection to the, conjoined with their powers of dispersal & the steady geographico-geological changes in which are in now progress & which undoubtedly & have taken place—) ⁋ Hence (V spare page Back of p. 21 bis)  In my opinion this one if no other evidence could be advanced, the facts given in this Chapter ought to would shake the opinion of the immutability of species & their Creation by so many Separate acts of will of the Creator 

Looking now to the affinities of organisms without relation to their distribution, & taking all fossil & recent we see the degrees of relationship are of different degrees & arbitrary — sub-genera — genera. sub-families families — orders & classes & kingdoms — In the lower In The kind of classification, which every one feels is most correct, founded on an intuition is called the natural system but no can define this, if we say with Whewell undefined instinct of the importance of organs =no & instance metamorphosis, afterwards explicable= — we have no means in lower animals of saying which is most important.— & yet every one feels that some one

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A I do not mean, that the fossil Mammifers in S. America are the linear successors, of the present forms of S. America for it is highly improbable that more than one or two (who will say how many races after Plate Bones) but that in all such cases all shd be found. I believe this from numbers, who have lived mere chance of fewness. Moreover in every case from very existence of genera & species only few at one time would leave progeny under form of new species, to distant ages & the more distant generally only the ages the fewer, the progenitors. V. Back of Page

P. The detection of transitional forms wd be rendered more difficult on a rising point of land.=

in relation to last discussion

Effect of climate on stationary isld

& on do continent but continent once islands

Moreover repeated oscillations

Great diffusion, when more united then isolation, when rising again immigration prevented,

new habitats formed, new species, when united free immigration — hence uniform character.

=Have more forms In islds =

Mountain Summits. why not new island species.

As preoccupation is bar to diffusion of species, so would it be to a selected variety — but it wd not be if that variety was better occupied fitted to some not fully occupied station — so during elevation or the formation of "new stations" is scene for new species

 

First let us recall in Part I. conditions of variation — change of conditions during several generations probably of some & if frequently altered so much better — perhaps excess of food — 2d continued selection when in wild state 3d. isolation in all or nearly all —as well to recall advantages of

 

In continent, if we look to terrestrial animals — long continued change might go on which wd only cause change in numerical number — if continued long enough might ultimately affect all,— though to most continents chance of immigration but here isolation absent, without barrier Some few affect whole body of species must be slowly affected by entire selection working same way. cut off small movement We can see advantage of isolation, we can see case of (two kind of Propagation?)? — But let us, take One simple case a far more favoured case case of isld thrown up, by volcanic agency at some such distance, here we shd have occasional visitant let no one overlook many known & more we know some of changes only in few numbers, & exposed to new conditions & even more important a quite new grouping of organic beings, which wd open out new sources of subsistence, or extend old ones — the number wd be few, we shd have this way best opportunity — Moreover as the isld continued increasing. & so put occasional visitant, continued slow changes, rivers. marshes, diverse beds of sea lakes, mountains &c &c. visitants wd come, or had come fr nearest land, hence relation — relation of different islds — so will on mountains be here different No mammals, or other classes. New Zealand as successive isld formed as island Migration space & time reunites If isld formed continent some species wd emigrate & immigrate Every one admits continent we can see why Galapagos & continent very different. no doubt in Galapagos islds no intermeds look to former intermediate land depressed & raised, after subsidence, so may force of creation,. which wd necessarily all partake of one character., from the first formed islds.— Transmigration & struggle from isld to isld when joined We can see from this repeated action & the time required for a continent., why many more forms than in New Zealand Why not two species any more than two varieties

 

We can at once see how it comes when there has been an old channel migration, Cordillera — we can see why Indian Asiatic Flora,— why species having a wide range gives better chance of some arriving at new points & becoming selected & adapted to new ends.— I need hardly remark no necessity for change.— puerility of metamorphosis

Finally 'as most extinction during formation of ⸮ Continent continent is formed after repeated elevation & depression, & interchange of species, we might foretell much extinction, & that the survivor wd belong to same type, as the extinct, in [illeg] main different parts of same continent, which was even separated by space, as these are by time As all mammals have descended from one stock, we ought to expect that every continent has been at some time connected, hence obliteration of parent range) Test of truth ⸮whether many more races in rising land than sinking. Galapagos (A)

(It is highly important here to An observation may here be appended bad chance of preservation on rising isld or formed of volcanic matter the nurseries of new species 'appeal to experience. Observe what This observation may be extended, that in all cases, subsiding land, must be much in early stages less favourable to formation of new species; but it will isolate them, & then if land recommences rising now favourable,— But during elevation not favourable to preservation of fossil (except in caverns), where subsidence highly favourable in early stages to preservation of fossil when subsides less sediment, — so that our strata, as general rule will contain be the remains tomb of old species, not undergoing any change, when rising land the Nursery, but of these no vestige will generally be preserved to future ages. — the new ones will not be entombed till fresh subsidence supervenes — in this long gap we shall have no record.— So that wonderful if we shd get transitional forms, — I do not mean every stage, for we cannot expect that, as before shown, until Geologist will be prepared to say that although under unnaturally favourable conditions, we can trace in future ages Short-Horn & Herefordshire—.

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system alone deserves to be called natural. The true relationship of organisms is brought before one by considering relations of analogy otter among an otter-like animal amongst Mammalia & an otter amongst Marsupials — in such cases external resemblance & habit of life & the final-end of whole organization, very strong, yet no relation.— Naturalists cannot avoid these terms of relation & affinity though they use them metaphorically — If used in simple earnestness they express the natural system ought to be a genealogical, & our knowledge of the points which are most easily affected in transmission are those which. we least value in considering the natural system & practically when we find they do vary, we regard them of less value. — In classifying varieties the same language is used & the same kind of division; hear also (in Pine-apples) we talk of the natural classification, overlooking similarity of the fruits, because whole plant differs. The origin of sub-genera genera &c & is not difficult on notion of genealogical succession & accords with what we know of similar gradations of affinity in domesticated organisms.— In the same region, the external conditions organic beings are somewhat related to each other & the external conditions in many physical respects are allied & their differences of same kind, & therefore where a new species has been selected & has obtained a place in the, œconomy struggle of nature, we may suppose that generally it will tend to extend its range during geographical changes & thus becoming isolated & exposed to new conditions will slightly alter & its structure by selection becomes slightly remodified, thus we should get species of a genus (2) or sub-genus (1) — as varieties of merino-sheep.— varieties of British & Indian cattle. Fresh species might go on forming & others become extinct & all might become extinct & then we should have extinct genus; a case formerly mentioned of which numerous cases occur in Palaeontogy.— But more often the same advantages which caused the new species to spread & become

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modified into several species would favour two or more of some of the species being preserved & if two of the species considerably different each gave rise to group of new species, you would have two genera; the same thing will go on. We may look at case in other way looking to future according to mere chance every existing species may generate another, but if any species A in changing. gets an advantage & that advantage (whatever it may be, intellect &c & or some particular structure or constitution) is inherited. (just as it is not likely every present bred Song birds & Cattle will propagate only some of the best) A will be the progenitor of several genera or even families — in the hard struggle of nature A will go on beating out other forms. it might come that A wd people earth [illeg] we may now not have one descendant on our globe of the one or several original creations.— External conditions air, earth, water being same on globe & the communication not being perfect forms organisms of widely different descent might become adapted to [illeg]  different the same end & then we should have cases of analogy grey-hound & race-horse have an analogy to each other. they might even tend to become numerically representative From this often happening each of the great divisions of nature might would have their representatives enormously adapted to earth, to water, to water, & to these in unison & then these great divisions would show numerical relations in their classifications.—   Degradation & Complication refer to analogy-sentences

(Unity or similarity of types in the great Classes)  Nothing more wonderful in Nat. Hist than looking at the vast number of organisms recent & fossil exposed to the most diverse conditions living in the most distant climes, & at immensely remote periods, fitted to wholly different ends, yet to find large group unity by a similar type of structure. When we for instance see, Bat horse, porpoise fin, hand, extends to birds & other classes & all built on same structure,

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having very same bones with same name, we see there is some deep bond =many bones merely represented= relation between them, to eli illumin illustrate what which this the foundation & object is called the Natural System , & wh is foundation of distinction of time &. Now this wonderful fact of hand, hoof, wing paddle & claw being the same, is at once explicable 'from which we see of the tendency on the principle of some dominant parent form which must either be [illeg] or walking animal becoming through infinite number of small selections adapted to various conditions. We know that proportion, size, shape of bones & accompanying soft parts vary. & hence constant selection would alter in to almost any purpose the framework of an organism, but yet would leave a general, even closest similarity in it. (We know the number of similar parts as vertebræ & ribs can vary, hence these also we might expect — ) Also the changes carried on to a certain point, doubtless type will be lost, & this is case with Plesiosaurus, but it is evident a form The unity of type in past & present ages of certain great divisions then undoubtedly receives the simplest explanation.

If There is another class of fact allied & almost identical facts, admitted by the soberest physiologists, from the study of a certain set of organs in a group of organisms, & refers to a unity of type of different organs in the same individuals denominated the science of "Morphology" That discovered by beautiful & regular series, & in the case of plants from monstruous changes, that certain organs in an individual are other organs metamorphosed; thus every botanist considers petals nectaries stamens, pistil germens. &c as metamorphosed leafs. They thus explain in the most lucid manner the position & number of all parts of the flower & the curious conversion under cultivation of one part into another — The complicated jaws, double set of jaws & palpi of Crustaceans, & all insects are considered metamorphosed & to see the series, is to admit

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this phraseology — The skulls of the Vertebrata are undoubtedly composed of three metamorphosed Vertebrae; thus we can understand the strange form of the separate bones, which compose the casket holding man's brain (AA)—

Now few of the physiologists who use this language really suppose that the parent of insects was with their metamorphosed jaws, was an insect with more so many legs, or that the parent of flowering plants, was originally had no stamens or pistils or petals, but some other means of propagation.— & so in other cases. Now according to our theory during the infinite number of changes. we might expect that an organ used for one purpose might be used for a different one by his descendant, as Must have been the case with by our theory with the Bat, porpoise horse &c which are descended from one parent. And if it so changed that traces of the former use & structure of the part should be retained, which is manifestly possible if not probable, then we should have the organs, on which Morphology is founded, & which instead of being metaphorical become plain & utterly unintelligible becomes simple if matter of fact.

+++ X Monstrosities X

Fish | ((Entomostracan Crest— ))

[illeg] let state more complicated X ⸮older? X

This general unity of type in great groups of organisms (including of course these morphological cases) displays itself in a most striking manner in the stages through which the fœtus passes. In early stage, the wing of bat, hoof hand, paddle add, shells. are not to be distinguished, at a still earlier there is no difference between fish, bird, & mammal. It is no doubt It is not that they cannot be distinguished, but the arteries or dissection. true that one passes through the forms of a lower type group. though no doubt fish more necessarily related to fœtal state. where arteries In a particular course — This similarity is test at this earliest

They pass through the same phases but some, generally called the higher groups are further Metamorphosed.— 

⸮Degradation & Complication?  No tendency to Perfection  ⸮justly argued against Lamarck.—?

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X

A.A. These facts differ but slightly from those of last section. if in the wing & paddle, hand, & hoof, some common structures were yet visible or could be made out by a series & occasional monstrous conversions, as if traces could be discovered of their whole having once existed as walking or swimming instruments, these organs would be said to be Metamorphosed, as it is they are only said to exhibit a common type.

It is evident, that when in each individual species organs are Metamorph., a unity of type extends  

This distinction is not drawn by physiologists, & is only implied by some by their general manner of writing.—

These facts, though affecting common to every organic being on which has existed or does exist the face of this globe can only be viewed by the Creationist as a all ultimate & wonderful inexplicable.— facts =

this wonderful fact of hoof foot, hand, ex as paddle. being built on same framework

But this unity of type through the individual of a group & this Metamorphosis of the same organs into many uses other organs, adapted to diverse ends the same individual, necessarily follows on the theory of descent. For let us take case of Vertebrata, which if they descended from one parent, (perhaps though probably more unlike,) & by this theory all the present vertebrates have been altered by slow degrees, such as we see in domestic animals — we know that proportions alter, & even that occasion number of vertebræ possibly even new  added alters, that parts become soldered, that parts are lost as [3 words illeg] but we know, here we can see that possibly a a walking organ might be converted into swimming, or into a gliding organ & so on to a flying organ., but such gradual changes wd not alter the unity of type As parts lost & soldered & vertebræ — but we can see that if this carried to extreme unity, lost, Plesiosaurus.— Here we have seen the same hand organs is folded in different purposes. & form & bear extremities, which are built on same type— &if in the several orders of Vertebrates we could trace origin in spinous processes by monstrosities & we shd say instead of their existing a unity of type Morphology, as we do when we trace the head as being three vertebræ metamorphosed. Be it observed that naturalists, as they used terms of affinity without attaching real meaning, here also they are obliged to use metamorphosis, without meaning that any parent of a Crust. we really have animal, with as many legs, as Crust have jaws. The theory of descent at once explains these wonderful facts—

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stage is remarkably show in the course of the arteries, which become greatly altered, as fœ advances in life & assume the widely different course & number which characterize full grown fish & Mammals — How wonderful that an egg in water or air, or in womb of Mother arteries shd run in same course. ≠ (A)

Light can be thrown upon this by our theory.— The structure of each organism is chiefly adapted to the sustensions of its life, when full-grown, when it has to feed itself & to propagate. (Deaths of brothers old by same peculiar disease) The structure of a kitten is quite in secondary degree adapted to its habits, whilst fed by its mother's milk & prey— (Monsters) (Eggs vary) Hence variations in the structure of the full-grown species will chiefly determine the preservation of a species, now become ill-suited to its habitat or rather with a better place opened to it in the œ of nature; No doubt every variation It will would not matter to the full-grown cat whether it in its young state it was more or less eminently feline, so that it become so when full grown = No doubt every most variation, We know that alteration (not depending on by habits of life of individual) depends on early change in fœtus — & we must suspect that at whatever time of life this alteration is effected, it tends to appear at same period when we (see) a tendency to particular disease in old age transmitted by the male, we know some effect is produce during concepcion, on the simple cell of ovule, which will not produce its effect till half a century afterwards, & that effect is not visible.— but still the disease does not manifest itself & no effect exposure   So we see in grey-hound & bull-dog — in race-horse & cart-horse, which have been selected for their form in full-life, there is much less (?) difference in few first days after birth, than when full-grown  — so in cattle, we see it clearly in cases of cattle,

[43v]

A. =Shells=

 medusa

 Insects to worms

 Batrachians to Fish

 & so with endless other cases

 cannot be viewed as steps to complication

=Females of some insects= Epizoa; Barnacles.;

These are most general & marvellous facts; to systematic naturalist greatest &importance, as character of highest value in ascertaining

(I think light can be thrown on these facts

Excursis on 'hereditary peculiarities' From the following peculiarities being hereditary., we know that some change in the germinal vesicle is effected, which will only betray itself years after diseases man goitres gout, , horse baldness baldness baldness fatness. size —longevity, maternity-time of [illeg] in .—  shape of horses = case of old Brothers dying of same diseases, we know the germinal vesicle must have been effected, though no effect is apparent or can be apparent, till years afterwards,— no more apparent than when these peculiarities appear by the exposure of the full-grown individual. So that when we see a variety in cattle, we cannot even if this variety be due to act of reproduction, or to cross, we cannot feel sure at what period this change, became apparent. It may have been effected during early age of free life fœtal existence, as monsters show. From arguments before used & crossing, we may generally suspect in germ, but I repeat it does not follow, that the change shd be apparent till life fully developed; any more than fatness, depending on hereditary shd be apparent during early childhood fœtal existence, still less during fœtal existence. In case of horns of Cattle, which when inherited must depend on germinal vesicle, obviously no effect till animal full grown— Practically it wd appear that the hereditary peculiarities affecting characterizing our domestic races, therefore resulting from vesicles, do not appear with their full characters in very early states; thus though two breeds of cows, have calfs different, they are not so different— grey-hound & bull-dog. And this is what wd be expected for man is indifferent to characters of young animals & hence wd select, those full-grown animals which possessed the desirable characteristics; so that from mere chance we might expect that some of the characters wd be such only as became fully apparent in Mature life.— Further more we may suspect

[44]

(29

which differ obviously in shape & length of horns —

If Man were during 10,000 years to be able to select, far more diverse animals from horse or cow, I should expect. there would be far less difference in the very young & fœtal state; & this I think, throws light on above marvellous fact — In larvæ, which have long life selection, perhaps, does much — —in the pupa not so much = There is no object gained in varying form &c of fœtus (beyond certain adaptation to mother; womb) & therefore selection will not further act on it, than in giving to its changing tissues a tendency to certain parts afterwards to assume certain forms— The less differences of fœtus, Shows there is no power to change the course of the arteries as long as they nourish the fœtus; if with selection of slight changes, which supervene at any time during course of life. The less differences of fœtus;, thus has obvious meaning on this view: otherwise how strange that a monkey horse or man or Bat should at one time of life have arteries running in a manner, which is only intelligibly useful in a fish.! = The Natural System being in theory genealogical, we can at once see why fœtus, retaining traces of the ancestral form, is of the highest value in classification (A) Age of Embryonic form. Entomost before common crust

There is another grand class of facts. relating to what are called abortive organs. These consist of organs which the same reasoning power which tells us that shows us how beautifully these organs in some cases are adapted to certain end, declares in other cases are absolutely useless. Thus teeth in Rhinoceros, White Narwhal.— bone on tibia— Muscles which do not move — little bone of wing of Apterix.— bones repeating extremities in some snake — little wings in soldered cover of beetles.— ≠ Mens & Bull Mammæ ≠ filament without anthers. in plants, Mem scales repeating petals in others in fatter-hyacinth, whole flower. Almost infinitely numerous. No one can reflect on them without astonishment, can anything be clearer than that wings are to fly & teeth & yet we find them organs perfect in every detail in situations where they cannot possibly be of their normal use — 

(Abortive organs eminently useful in classification)

Embryonic state of organs

Rudiments of organs

[44v]

=Degradation & Complication= v. Lamarck: no tendency to perfection; if room, even high organism wd have greater power in beating lower one, though to be selected for a degraded end. —

 

it to be a law, that at whatever time a new character appears, whether from vesicle, or effects of external conditions, it wd appear at corresponding time — Thus diseases appearing in old ages produce children with do — early maturity or degradation — longevity.— Old men or brothers of same disease— young children of do = I said men do not select quality of young — calf with big bullocks — Silk-worms, peculiarities which appear in caterpillar state or  state are transmitted to corresponding states. The effect of this wd be that if some peculiarity was born in a young animal, but never exercised, it might be inherited in young animals; but if  that part of structures, wd be increased & wd be inherited in corresponding time of life after such training —

I have said man selects in full-life, so wd it be in nature. In struggle of existence, it matters nothing to a feline animal, whether Kitten eminently feline, as long as it sucks.— therefore natural selection wd act only equally well on characters which were fully, only in full age.

Selection could tend to alter no character in fœtus, (except in relation to Mother) th wd alter less in young state (putting on the side larva condition) but alter every part in full-grown condition.— Look to fœtus & its parent, & again after ages fœtus & its descendants, two parents variable than fœtus, which explains all

[45]

(30 The term abortive organ has been thus applied to above structures, as invariable as all other parts, from their absolute similarity to monstrous cases, where from accident, certain organs are not developed; as infants without arm or finger with mere stump representing them: teeth repeated by men points of ossification headless children with mere button — viscera represented by small amorphous masses &c the tail by mere stump — a solid horn by minute hanging one. There is a tendency in all these cases, where life is preserved, for such structures to become hereditary. we see it in tailess dogs & cats.— In plants we see this strikingly — in Thyme in Linum Flavum stamens in Geranium pyrenaicum — nectaries abort into petals in Columbine — produced from some accident & then become hereditary. in some cases only when propagated by buds, in other cases by seed.— Where the race has such organs, it would be impossible that Where These cases have been produced suddenly by accident in early growth, but it is [illeg] part of laws of growth that when any organ is not used it tends to diminish (ducks wing?) muscles wither arteries grow up, where eye born defective Muscles of dogs ears— rabbit. optic nerve Toco Toco is atrophied. And as every part, whether useful or not (diseases double flowers) tends to be transmitted to offspring, the origin of abortive organs are readily understood in domestic races of organisms. whether produced at one birth or slowly acquired a struggle between the effects atrophy ' hereditariness— Abortive organs in domestic races There will always be a struggle between atrophy of an organ rendered useless vis medicatrix & hereditariness. Because we can understand the origin of certain abortive organs in certain cases, it would be wrong to conclude absolutely that all must have had same origin, but the strongest analogy is in favour of it. As we could thus can by our theory 'for being infinite changes some organs we might have anticipated wd have become useless readily explain the astounding fact so astounding on any other view, namely that organs perfectly useless have been formed often with this same exquisite care as when of vital importance.

[45v]

Abortive organs

Naturalists apply this term

p. 29 as it goes; infinitely numerous, every organism— quite permanent, which mere term might have led to doubt. What is more wonderful useful in classification Granimiæ) = That these organs not mere representatives, Mammæ in Man & bull— extra tits in cow — stamens & pistil (stages of abortion in pistils & stamens) in diœcious plants— can influence them by crossing thorns into buds & leaves = ∴ not representative no figure of speech — used for other purposes , marigold, marsupial— (more plain in young forms) Vertebræ & head— Truly wonderful. Are we to suppose fossil ages created, or can we explain Natur ^ Physiologists applying it to differently from naturalists & proves many uses: truly abortive; metaphorical in Naturalists, (⁁ back top); but it is found hereditary, cases

Now this at once explains we need not be surprised we get intelligent many useful in classification: X

The hereditary tendency, hanging horns vis medicatrix explains this,— (or again in six fingered races, effect of crossing) stumps Even the vis-Medicatrix seems same thing, if cause of monstrosity supervenes not as early in fœtal life abortive nails =  Whether successive small decrements ; or want of exercise under domesticity, wd produce, is doubtful — whether duck's wing, abortive as far as flight is concerned— ears of dogs cauliflower probably gradual; Flowers gradually become double, w see anther aborts by degrees. Any how we know that want of use shrivels limbs; & analogy probably shews that hereditary — When eye not used, atrophied nerve. ⸮whether continued blinding, Tuco-tuco — Whether or not want of use wd produce

If slow changes by addition will produce abortive organs we can see how they might be turned to other uses — instance Marigold & Marsupials.

If abortive organs, are a trace preserved by hereditary tendency, of organ in ancestor of use, we can at once. see, why, important in natural classification, + + + also why more plain in young animal, + + + because, as in last section, on the principle of variation supervenes at all times, judging from domestic animals, not at earliest period. the selection has altered the old animal most.  I repeat these wondrous facts of parts created for no use, in past & present time all can by my theory receive simple explanation, or they receive none & we must be content with such empty metaphors, as that of Decandoelle, who compares creation to a well covered table, & says abortive organs may be compared to the symmetry of the dishes (some shd be empty) placed symmetrically!

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(31

Our theory, I may remark, would permit an organ, become abortive with respect to its primary use to be turned to any other purpose; (as the buds in a cauliflower) thus we can see no difficulty in bones of Male-Marsupial being used as fulcrum of muscles or pis style of Marygold — indeed in one point of view, the heads of vertebrated Mamm tuco animal may be said to be abortive vertebræ turned into other use — legs of some Crustacea abortive jaws &c &c.— Decandelles analogy of table covered with dishes. ≠ (Degradation & Complication)

(A) Let me recapitulate this volume—   then latter sect. by taking case of the three species of Rhinoceros  which inhabit Java Sumatra & Mainland of Malacca, or India. Seeing that species, when domesticated vary & that man can select, knowing that conditions vary & where islands are formed the conditions &c &c We find these three close neighbours, occupants of distinct but neighbouring districts, as a group having a different aspect from the Rhinoceros of Africa, though some of these latter inhabit very similar countries, but others most diverse stations— We find them intimately related scarcely differing more than some breeds of cattle in structure to the Rhinoceros, which for immense periods have inhabited their one, out of three main zoological divisions of the world; yet some of these ancient animals were fitted to very different stations: we find all three partaking of the generic character of the Rhinoceros. which form a piece of net set of links in the chain broken chain representing the Pachydermata, as this chain likewise forms a portion in other & large chains — We see this wonderfully in dissecting the short neck. same bone as in Giraffe coarse legs of all three & finding nearly the same bones as in Bats wings or man's hand — but we see the clear mark of the in solid tibia of the fusion into it of the fibula— In all three we find their heads composed of three altered vertebræ — In the upper jaws of all three we find small teeth like rabbits — & dissecting them in fœtal state we find at a not very early stage their forms exactly alike the most different animals & even with arteries many as in a fish— & this similarity holds when the young one is produced in womb

[46v]

=Recap: (difficulties=)

whole book

favourable Rhinoceros case

Why not admit no one definition species or genera

 limits of character not known

sum  of variation similar  as long as sterility — palæontological ignorance of origin of all things unknown.

=infinitely numerous domestic organisms=

like erosion of valleys or inland coast-cliffs.' the mind cannot grasp the whole full meaning of a million of years Limit of my theory = Conclusion.=

Wild animals organisms. vary & in same particulars as tame

= all wd vary if domesticated =

Natural conditions vary; sudden immigration; if no selection effect of crossing & reversion

There seems no limit wonderful possible effects of selection

Selection by natural secondary laws.— power of increase power of geometrical increase, by calculation & natural increase

every creature lives by a struggle

Take an isolated country, with changing conditions & new stations opened at intervals — organization unsettled —

smallest grain in balance must tell

=Sexual struggle= effect on fighting organs sum up. V.  p 63 without there be unknown laws limiting limit of variation No absolute character    

Comparing domestic races & so called species, trueness & sterility

Read p. 28. How weak man selecting power —  comparing

Sterility — graduated not universal.— dependent on constitution

 cannot we find the cause for this sterility

show that animals & plants sterile when taken out of conditions

 analogy.— for hybrids are not monstrous—

p. 36  we need not wonder that races are fo nd sterile

We then showed that Instinct p. 63. summing p. 63

Comparison of Hybrids & mongrels. before p 40 to be introduced  

  Summing up. — Th Ch was summed up by the admission. that though it seems probable that races undistinguishable by any one character from species, that wd may be occasion produced, are  in certain situations.— or one change would get that we may look for our proof to the actual relations in geographic range in offering, & in slowing of the infinitely numerous mutation of species, which seems & all & alone. 

(Chapter on instincts — & on complicated organisms)

In this Ch. for convenience sake variation in — consensual movements   not origin & in mental arise & are modifyed. which strongly correspond in every character to instincts 

Effects of crossing, ultimate testing =

[47]

(32

pond. egg or spawn.— Now & in late times, we must suppose out these three undoubted species scarcely differ more than breeds of cattle, are probably subject to many the same contagious disease,  if domesticated these forms would vary & they might possibly breed into something different, one form be lost their aboriginal forms,.— — might be selected to some different ends. A

continued Now the creationist believes these three Rhinoceros were created out of the dust of Java, Sumatra, then allied, to past & present age & infinite form, with the stamp of immutability in some of their organs & conversion in others, with these deceptive appearances of true, not metamorphic relationship,, as well can I believe the planets revolve in their present course not from one law of gravity, but from distinct volitions of Creator.—

If real species, sterile one with another, differently adapted, now inhabiting different countries, with diff. structures & instincts, are to admitted to have common descent, we can only legitimately stop where our facts stop— Look how far in some a chain of species will lead us— May we not jump, (considering how much extermination & how imperfect geological records) from one sub-genus to another subgenus— Can genera restrain us— Many of the same arguments which made us give up species, inexorably demand genera & families & orders to fall. & classes tottering, we ought to stop only where clear unity of type, independent of use & adaptation ceases—

Seeing Be it remembered no naturalist to pretends to give test from external characters of species; we have seen in many genera the distinction is quite arbitrary. True species in vary according to same general laws; they cross according to same laws, they are classified. But   

there remains one other way of comparing species with races; it is to compare the effects of crossing them. Would it not be wonderful, if the union of two creatures organisms

[47v]

A. Sum up about chance of not finding intermediate foss. or if found, intermediate between genera.— 

Recapitulation continued instincts fully as necessary once grant proposition as structure, acted on by selection

possibility of acquiring complicated instincts of every kind

Were even led on to consider under same view of possibility

Complic improve structure— & we showed. again only taking the series of existing structures

 

after summing up. II Part.— Enormous number of facts thus explicable  & Difficulties, such as wd result from our undoubted acknowledged ignorance

can it be shown that no variation in Natural State.— No

⎯⎯⎯⎯ limit & number of va number of variations—  under favourable: ie. domesticity. No

⎯⎯⎯⎯ any distinction be drawn between such domestic vars & their grouping & species — No

As long as sterility was thought a bar & we were ignorant of geology & palæontology:, we might say origin of all things unknown

≠ Why do we feel inclined to reject — simply because we do not perceive steps, whereas to form organs, instincts (when the actual case of some two species or races is put.)  in nature of case impossible for us to do— Lyells valley.

Mind cannot grapple grasp meaning of a million years

Shall

What Shall we say on the origin of the 3 Rhinoceros, which inhabit

as soon believe planets

Before concluding — Extension of theory

Conclusion

Sexes sterile 

 

If we give up species of same genus not possible to form any near limit—

=many naturalists consider all artificial=

if we take in fossils further.—

Hybrid rule useless —

If we give up species we may give up all the lower divisions —

No doubt, the more recent two species are, the argument for their common descent feels give weak"> — analogy from domestic races — crossing — geographical distribution.— but as long, as idea of unity of type, either in mature or course of abortive organs or fœtal state— without relation of adaptation & !! crosses so far must even they go— Naturalists dispute how far unity extends— But in Animal Kingdom all Vertebrates, Articulates Mollusca — some divisions of Radiata Radiata not on one type & three or four or more great divisions of plants

In vegetable Kn. Monocot, dicots & acot. &c

[48]

(33

produced by two separate acts of Creators,  blended their character together when crossed according to the same rules, as two races which have undoubtedly descended from same parent stock; yet this can be shown to be the case. For sterility, though a usual, is not an invariable concomitant; it varies much in degree, & has been shown to be probably dependent on causes closely analogous, with those wh make domesticated organisms sterile. Independent of sterility there is no difference between mongrels & hybrids, as can be shown in a long series of facts. It is strikingly seen in cases of instincts, where the minds of the two species or races become blended together. In both cases if the half-bred be crossed with either parent for a few generations, all traces of the one parent form is lost (as Kolreuter in two Tobacco species almost sterile together), so that the Creationist in the cases of a species, must believe one act of creation is absorbed into another!— 

Recapitulation (very brief) given under forms of Rhinoceros

+ Conclusion + 

Such are my reasons for believing that specific forms are not immutable: The distribution of organ vis affinity of different groups, the unity of types of structures the representative form, through which fœtus passes the metamorphosis of organs, the abortion of others cease to metaphorical expressions & become intelligible facts. We no longer look an animal, as a savage does at a ship pr other great work of art, as a thing wholly beyond comprehension, but we must feel far more interest in examining it.

[48v]

(Hybrids & Mongrels)

} crossing grapes same flower one way some another.

} Laburnums =Reversion= tendency to vary transmitted in crossing — hybrids & mongrels

— some like father & some like mother in both.—

= — in hybrids an organ will sometimes take after, & sometimes after mother= 

⸮ mongrels

Races & species so big crosses will kill mothers.

Lord Moreton & Pigs

in some crosses of species & races take after after — some after mother 

{ In some races take entirely after one side or other side absorbing each other both races & species become more variable— Capable of crossing with endless number of species & varieties in hybrids & mongrels

[49]

(34

How interesting is every instinct, when we speculate on their origin as an hereditary or congenital habit or trick ? or produced by the selection of individuals differing slightly from their parents. We must look at every complicated mechanism & instinct as  every a the summary of a long history, of useful contrivances, much like a work of art— How interesting does the geog distribution of all animals become, as throwing light on ancient geography. we see some seas bridged over Geology looses in its glory, from the imperfection of its archives, but how immensely does it gain in the immensity of the periods of its formations & of the gaps separating these formations. There is much grandeur in looking at the existing animals either as the lineal descendants of the forms, buried under thousands feet of matter, or as the coheirs of some still more ancient ancestor.— It accords with what know of the law laws works impressed on matter by the Creator, that the creation & extinction of forms like the birth & death of individuals should be the effect of secondary laws means; & that it is derogatory that the Creator of countless systems of world should have created each of the myriads of creeping parasites & slimy worms. which have since earliest days of life inhabited swarmed over land & water this one globe. We cease being astonished however much we may deplore that a group of animals should have be directly created to lay their eggs,  on in bowels & flesh of other — that some organism should delight in cruelty, that animals should be led away by false instincts— that annually there should be an incalculable waste of eggs & pollen. From death, famine & rapine & the concealed struggle war of nature we can see that the highest good which we can conceive, the creation of the higher animals has directly come. Doubtless it

[49v]

grouping of species, past & present time

appearance & extinction of groupings

object of Natural classification; plan of creator

(2)  (1)

physiological importance not element.— adaptation not element, analogical or adaptive characters

[illeg] forms.— Practical rule, not known

Approach generic

Classification of variation similar law — geography helps — analogical characters valueless

unity of type structure in whole groups is rudiment each adapted to most divers ends— & the clear explanation offered by Morphology.— follows on small alteration—

+unity of embryonic life—

embryo become simpler as it grows explained on two the principles of variation supervening at different periods & appearing at corresponding age.—

in domestic animals variation not complete

Hence see the importance in classification

Abortive organs useless=not mere representatives = applied to other uses of more importance in classification = are best & often only developed in young states.

Monstruous abortions; when hereditary explainable; probably is result from slow want of use; explains their greater or sole development in Embryo—

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(35

at first transcends our humble powers, to conceive laws capable of creating individual organisms, each characterized by the most exquisite workmanship & widely-extended adaptations most universal. it accords better with our modesty the lowness of our faculties to suppose each must require the fiat of a creator; but in the same proportion the existence of such laws should exalt our notion of the power of An Omniscient creator. There is a simple grandeur in this view of life with its power ofgrowth, assimilation & reproduction being originally breathed into matter under one or a few forms & that whilst this our planet has gone circling on according to fixed laws, & land & water in a cycle of change has gone on replacing each other, by that & from this so simple an origin through the process of gradual selection of infinitesimal changes endless forms most beautiful & Most wonderful have been evolved.—  

(Recapitulate objections)

The supposed creative spirit, does not create either number or kind, wh. from analogy adapted to site (viz New Zealand) it does not keep them all permanently adapted to any country— it works on spots or areas of creation— it is not persistent for great periods— it creates form of same group in

X same region, with no physical similarity— its power seems influenced or related to the range of other species wholly distinct of the same genus.— it does not equally affect in amount of difference all the groups of the same class.

it creates on islds or mountain summit allied species allied to the neighbouring ones, & not allied to alpine nature as shown in other mountain summits.— even different on different islds of similarly constituted archipelago.—

not created on two points = not never mammifers created on small isolated islds. ≠ more number of organisms adapted to locality: N.B. vide summing up of Geographical Section.—

Besides other difficulties in II. Part — Now— acclimatisation of Plants.

Difficulty when asked how did white & Negro become altered from common intermediate stock: no facts  

(We do not know that species are immutable)

what arguments against this theory, except ones not perceiving every step, like the erosion of valleys.— 

(N. B. There ought somewhere to be a discussion from Lyell to show that external conditions do vary or a note to Lyell's works.)

(Preserve p : p 6 in notes)

[50v]

Number of forms which must have existed; not decidedly 

Silurian not contemporan

not all fossil even if collect & recent wd make this series

 

Silurian not contemp. with life

Secondary Deposit not [illeg] — each does not give fair preview of any [illeg] even many

Evidence as far as it does go, is favourable.

exceedingly incomplete    greatest  theory   difficulty on this theory     I am convinced not inexplicable 

Species come in gradually— accords with our theory & disappear — extinction not so wonderful, as it commences by rarity— is dependent on struggle & percentage of death — quite unperceived agency.—

[in red crayon in another hand:] B      B