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Although I have personally scarcely seen anything of the islands in the Pacifick Ocean, I am tempted to make a few observations respecting them. In looking at a chart of the East Indian group, it will be seen that a direction within a couple of points of NW & SE is common to the Western and Eastern Islands.

[comment in margin by a third hand:] which East Indian group

This line is continued to new Caledonia. It is fronted by the parallel chains of New Ireland, Solomon and Hebrides Islands. Again we see the same fact in the Northern part of New Zealand; the constitution of which like the foregoing islands, is essentially volcanic. The NE coast of Australia which is fronted by the great barrier reef, and so intimately connected with the Pacifick, has also a NW and SE direction. The whole shore is believed to consist of granitic rock; a little way inland a long chain of hills, runs parallel to the coast line. (Dr Fitton's Appendix to Kings Australia) Those small islands which stretch in an E and W direction half way across the Pacifick, are frequently described as being a curved part of that volcanic band of islands which terminates southward at the New Hebrides, or more properly in New Zealand.

But I do not think this a correct view. In each separate archipelago the direction already alluded to, is found. This law prevails even as far as the Sandwich Islands. I may even add, the peninsula of California

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and the shores of North America. Perhaps the strongest exception will be discovered in the Friendly Islands, that is if these are taken without reference to the group of the Fidjis. All the islands ought rather to be considered as so many short parallel lines, rather than the continuation of the great volcanic shores of Asia.

I have pointed out this fact as showing a degree of physical connection in the islands of Polynesia.

[a few erased pencil words in margin are illeg]

Forster in his observations in a voyage round the world, makes three classes for the different kinds.

1st High Islands without coral reefs; he adduces as example the Marquesas and Hebrides, and two out of the Friendly Islands; to these may be added the Navigators. [erased pencil in margin refers to 'Navigators' and seems to be a 'q' for query] As described by Kotzebue, the Sandwich and Galapagos groups and several other smaller ones. It would be a curious point to ascertain, whether coral grows abundantly on the shores of any of these islands, although not forming a reef; or whether as at the Galapagos it may be considered as absent. [erased pencil in margin appears to read 'q Covington'][pencil in margin: 'De Langle' 'coral'] This one fact would throw much light on the theoretical structure of all the coral formations. We know that in some parts of the world where coral is abundant as in the West Indies true Lagoon Islands do not occur.

IIly High Islands encircles by a reef, as a picture is by a frame. The singularity of this phenomenon, the beauty and utility of its effect has scarcely been

Forster, Johann Reinhold. 1778. Observations made during a voyage round the world on physical geography, natural history, and ethnic philosophy. London: G. Robinson. [signed] Text.  See the Beagle Library.

Kotzebue, Otto von. 1830. A new voyage round the world, in the years 1823-1826. 2 vols. London: Henry Colburn. vol. 1 PDF

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(a) x Because I have no other place to introduce the subject.—

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enough insisted upon by voyagers. It must be borne in mind, that the line of breakers sweeps round, at a considerable distance from the foot of the mountains. The interval is occupied by the smooth water of the lagoon and the low alluvial land, which has encroached on parts of its former bed. Forster gives as examples Tahiti, and all the true Society Islands, the higher ones of the Friendly Archipelago and New Caledonia.

III The low half drowned islands, composed entirely of coral and including a lagoon. IV. Captain Beechey has described another or IV class, such as Elizabeth, Savage and Wateo Islands and perhaps Malden of the Lord Byron, which are composed of coral rock, are of moderate height, and probably before their elevation existed as low or lagoon islands. [in margin: 'or fourth'] Captain Beechey remarks on the rarity of this class. I suspect however on a more accurate knowledge, several more will be added to this list. I may perhaps instance Turtle Island of Cook, which Forster  brings forward as the best example of subterranean elevation in the Pacifick.

[erased pencil comment in margin is illeg]

With respect to this classification, it appears to me, that the distinction between the II, and III division, or the high islands with the reefs [in margin in third hand: 'no'] and the lagoon ones, is artificial. (a) I believe the reefs and strips of land, which compose the circular low islands, are of the very same structure and origin with those reefs which encircle, as with a belt, so

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(a)

The division is definite & good, its foundation with respect to origin & essential structure is artificial

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many of the lofty ones. When viewing Eimeo from the heights of Tahiti the isle of Eimeo I was forcible struck with this opinion identity of structure. The mountains abruptly rise out of a glassy lake, which is separated on all sides, by a narrow defined line of breakers, from the dark blue wave of the ocean open seas.

[in pencil in margin in third hand:] X without the soil—trees &c &c—

Remove the central group of mountains, and there remains a lagoon island. I ground this opinion from the following facts. There is a general similarity in the two cases, in the form and size of the reefs; their structure appears identical, we have scarcely fathomable water in each case, at a short distance on the outer margin; within is a shallow basic more or less filled up by knolls of growing coral or converted into dry land. In the lagoon islands there are some, which do not deserve the title, for they consist solely of a circular reef, of which scarcely a point projects above the water; such as the island near Turtle Island of Cook, whilst others have a more or less complete, but narrow ring of dry land. In the same manner, in the encircling reefs, although they generally are only ornamented by a few speck like formed tiny [in pencil in margin in third hand: 'speck?']  island; yet at the fine islands of Huahine, Ellis states [in pencil in margin in third hand: 'that'] that the reef is becoming converted into dry land. The essential character in the one class of a large encircled island, itself dwindles away, and become s ambiguous. We have the two large

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[in pencil in margin in third hand:] Wailutake

islands of Raiatea & Taha (?) included in one reef. In such cases, as in Gambier Island so well described by Captain Beechey where a group of small hilly islands is encircles by one grand reef, or as in Whylootacke (seen by the Beagle) where one single one is so situated, it becomes a question in which of the two classes, they ought to be arranged. [in pencil in margin in third hand: 'in the IId without doubt—'] In the island of New Caledonia as drawn on a large scale in Krusenstern's Atlas, the reef will be seen prolonged at each extremity, and encircling the continuation beneath the water, of the land. It here requires less effort of imagination to remove the central hills and so leave a perfect lagoon island; This change judging from the figure, it might be believed was actually in process [in pencil in margin in third hand, line indicating next 6 lines with 'qy' (query)] The last argument, which I can adduce, is the parallelism between the archipelagos; of the two orders, for instance the low Islands and the Society ones.

Moreover, this parallelism is found in the direction of the longer axis of the oval figure, which is so frequent in the encircling reefs and low islands. One is tempted to extend still further this similarity and to believe there is no difference between the reef, which encircles an island, and those extraordinary barriers of coral, which front for so many leagues the coast of Australia, and I believe the northern shore of Brazil. [in pencil in margin in third hand with the underlining 'qy':] The high encircled islands are composed

[The island was spelled "Whylootacke (or Wailutaki)" in FitzRoy's Narrative.]

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of various geological formations: no doubt, ancient volcanic rocks are most abundant, but in Tahiti M. Hoffman found granite. Mr Ellis states that in several of the Society Islands granite, hornblendic rock, limestone and rock with garnets are found. Forster in New Caledonia describes the prevalent rock under the name of Gestell stein, which I believe to be mica slate. Hence we may feel secure (if any doubts could have been entertained) that these encircling reefs are not built on the rims of submarine craters. If the proofs, of the identity in nature of the two kinds of reefs, are considered as conclusive, in a like manner there is no necessity [c. 9 words erased pencil in margin illeg] that the lagoon island should be based on such craters. This view will I think, generally be more satisfactory; it removes the difficulty of the immense ['x' in margin to misspelling of 'immense', later corrected] size of the lagoons far exceeding any known crater; and explains the extreme irregularity of the figure, exemplified in the Radack and Ralix groups, described by Kotzebue. [in pencil in margin in third hand: 'query correct' to 3 lines here]

Whether we look at these lagoon islands, as having formed by encircled high land or resting on the brim of a crater, it appears to me we must admit, the theory of Mr Lyell (volume the II chapter XVIII,) that their present structure is owing [pencil in margin: 'q'] to a series of small depressions.

Now if the ground foundation on which the Lithophytes have built constructed their massive edifices, has not subsided in must either have remained stationary or been

Lyell, Charles. 1830-1833. Principles of geology, being an attempt to explain the former changes of the earth's surface, by reference to causes now in operation. 3 vols. London: John Murray. vol. 3 Text

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elevated: On the first of these suppositions, it being allowed, that the coral animals can only flourish at a small small (as compared to the profundity[?] of the ocean depth, it follows, that the submarine mountains, on which the coral is now growing, reached, within the such small limits of such depths, to the surface level of the water; but and yet, that not one a simple peak, ever raised its head above this level rose any higher.

On the second supposition, of a series of elevations, these movement over a large tract of ocean great immense spaces, ceased, and never exceeded, the limits already pointed out. Now these consequences from the two suppositions, are so very improbable, (for if they are not others, we might expect to find somewhere in more than one [illeg] of [illeg] great tracts  of country with mountains of an [in margin in pencil: 'steady'?] nearly equal height) that to my mind the evidence of subsidence in these districts the only remaining supposition is nearly almost demonstrative.

No doubt the fourth class of islands, of raised coral rock, is an argument on the other side; but their acknowledge rarity certain in that very parts of the ocean appears to me a proof that they ought rather to be considered as exceptions or inequalities in the prevailing movement. If a gradual upheaval was in progress here, as on the shore of S. American, the coral would afford a more palpable and lasting evidence, than could be expected under and other circumstances. Captain Fitz Roy, has discovered an interesting traditions amongst the Low Islanders, that the arrival of the first ship, was followed not long afterwards

[16x, inserted slip]

[sketch from original draft]

(A)      (B)      (C)   Lagoon

Open Sea       External part of reef

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by a great inundation which destroyed many people. Earthquakes are occasionally ['x' in margin noted a spelling error in 'occassionally' experienced here; at Tahiti, there happened one, which was believed to have foretold the arrival of the first missionaries. I looked in vain on the shores of Tahiti for any sort of evidence of a consequent rise. In the Polynesian traditions (Ellises Researches) ['*' in margin marks spelling errors] there are accounts of deluges, which evidently were accompanied by volcanic phenomena. The difficulty in understanding the cause of a reef of living coral, being separated by channels or lakes from the land, has not as yet, been attempted to be removed.

The only explanation, which I can offer, is chiefly conjectural. When at Tahiti I examined the reef. I found on the exterior margin, a solid broad (30 to 50 20 (B) yards ?) mound of coral rock, strikingly resembling an artificial (but low) breakwater, (A) on which the surf beats with violence. The surface of the mound is compact and smooth. It is slightly curved and dips towards the (C) inside or smooth water of the harbour.

Owing to the surf, I could not examine the outer margin; I am told it consists of smooth ledges of living coral, and that its general inclination is great. It is ['*' in margin to spelling error in 'occassions'] on rare occasions, when there happens to be very little surf and a low tide, that the living parts can be seen. Not unfrequently after gales of wind, the ledges, (probably overhanging) are town up and in enormous masses thrown far up on the reef; but this

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means also, the natives know the exterior margin is thus constituted. The central part of the breakwater is entirely dead; on its surface the chief production is an incrusting inarticulate Corallina Nullipora. The sea, breaking violently on the outer margin, continuously pumps over in sheets pumps the water of its waves; hence the surface is worn smooth and gently declines towards the lagoon. I was assured, that on the rare occasions, ['x' in margin for spelling error] alluded to, the central part is exposed, uncovered to the rays of the sun, and that this invariably kills the animal, and leaves the Lithophyte a dead rock. There must however be some process by which the mound is repaired; if once worn away so deeply as always to be covered by the water, the case becomes at once similar to the outer parts, perhaps the Corallinas and other small marine productions may protect the surface. [line in margin marks the remainder]

The whole reef may be described, as consisting of two parts; the outer margin of the breakwater, the part (2) solid (1) [these numbers refer to Covington putting these two words in the wrong order] of which is higher than all the rest; and a tract of very shallow water which varies in width from a 100 hundred yards to a mile.

In this low part there are little narrow twisting channels and holes of deep water, and on the other hand many points, where the coral reaches to the surface. It is in this still water where an observer as has often been described, may watch the fish gliding amongst groves of variously coloured corals. This part of the reef seldom or never is directly joined to the

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Shores; but there are left channels and harbors where a ship can anchor in a fine sandy bottom. I imagine it is the fresh water and sediment brought down from the mountains which helps to prevent these spaces being filled up and likewise perhaps the cause that these reefs are seldomer converted into stripes of dry land, than in the Lagoon Islands. In the shallow parts the most abundant kind of Lithophytes, are stony & branching, genera (as     ). Also Fungia and Caryophillia.

Showing these to some intelligent natives I was assured, that such kinds never grow on the outside of the reef or compose solid reefs. From their descriptions, I imagined the prevalent kinds, so situated, are such as Porites 3 Millepora 2 and some Meandrina 4 and Astrea. Anyhow they appeared to consider that there is a wide distinction in the two cases. Ellis do Analogy, from the habits of all other marine animals, would lead one to suppose that the same species would not flourish in two such different localities, as the foam of furious breakers, and shallow placid lakes. If this opinion should be granted, it would be very important; we might infer, that those species, which build the external solid wall, the highest and most perfect part of the coral rock, will only flourish where the waters break violently. (D. la Beche.) Mr. Quoy and Gaimard, state, "that the species, which constantly formed the most extensive banks, belong to the genera, Meandrina, Caryophyllia and Astrea" and that the Saxigenores polypi increase most considerably

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in shallow and quiet water". I am not aware, whether they suppose, these same species form the outer parts of the reef.

With respect to the ratio of increase I have a few remarks to offer. In the greater number of the Lagoon Islands, from the arguments already used, it is clear no movement of elevation has taken place. Now Captain Beechey remarks, that the strips of dry coral, divested of any loose sandy materials, heaped upon them, are rarely elevated more than two feet above the level of the sea. [in margin 'too many "nows"'] Now whatever this elevation may be, it is clear that the highest point of the living coral rock is in any island as high as or higher than the dead. Because the dead, lived under similar circumstances and may have suffered degradation. [in margin: 'x cart before horse' '(a)' 'x qy'] Now this quantity height of 2 ft is so much higher than the level of the ocean, and therefore than the waters of the lagoon, which must afford the nearest approximation to judge by. Hence Therefore the coral which has formed the strips of dry land, could not have been cherished by those quiet waters, but rather in the turbulence of the breakers, where a surface above the mean level, would never remain uncovered and exposed to the rays of the sun. This conclusion perfectly agrees with what was visible in the reef of Tahiti. In those cases, where true coral rock is above the level of the lagoon, the land must have increased outwards; as appears to have been the case, on the island, on which Captain Beechey found the remains of the wreck of the

The rate exceedingly slowly

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Introduce this as a note, stating my previously formed opinion

[pencil note in third hand:] May not earthquake waves be occasional agents? — May not the wreck of the Matilda have been thrown inshore by a great wave? Such an event happening once in a century —as at Lima or Concepcion — would hardly be known to the few Europeans who have yet examined Polynesia. [erased pencil: 'with an imaginative mind']

(a) Give the reason first — amplify the expression similar circumstances —

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Matilda so very singularly situated. [pencil insertion in third hand 'Note B'] but as it appears from the extreme depth, beyond the reef that this can hardly be a general process, I suspect that coral rock may often be difficult to be distinguished from a rock of cemented fragments. [pencil in margin: 'C.D ⸮—']

Besides the greater absolute height of the coral which grows in the surf, it must be remembered, that yearly gales of wind, tear off large fragments, some of which are tossed on the reef and others must fall down into the surrounding depths. Yearly the Polypus has to replace this damage. On the other hand, within the lagoon all detritus accumulates, and if as according to M. Quoy and Gaimard, the coral grows there also most rapidly; how comes it that the lagoon is not more commonly filled up? this is the more surprising, if we look at the entire section of a lagoon island in Captain Beechey, and see how trifling the inequality of the foundation really is.

And we must also bear in mind, that arguments can be advanced to show that the subsidences must happen after long intervals, such as few proportionate numbers of submerged circular reefs, [in margin: 'X X'] and again the quantity of detritus heaped up on the dry coral. The general tenor of the foregoing facts, strongly urges me to believe that the coral, most effective in forming the solid reef, will only flourish near to the break of the sea.— I will not pretend to conjecture concerning the cause of this predilection, whether the motion of

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the fluid, or the quantity of entangled air, is favourable; or whether the light and heat, which must pervade still shoal water is injurious to the growth of their species. If then the two following postulates are allowed much of the difficulty in understanding the coral formation, will I think be removed.  

[in margin in third hand to the following paragraph: 'Rather a heavy Postulate!']

(1st) That in certain parts of the Pacifick, a series of subsidences have taken place; of which no one exceeded in depth, the number of feet, at which saxigenous polypi will flourish; and of which series, the intervals between the successive steps, were sufficiently long (or longer) to allow of their growth, always bringing to the same level the upper surface of the reef.  

[in margin in third hand to the following paragraph: 'but much easier to be granted']

(2nd) That those species of Lithophytes, which build the outer solid wall, flourish best, where the sea violently breaks. This second Post: is not so necessary as the first, as will be subsequently seen. Possibly the fact of the windward side of the low islands, where the surf generally most violent, being the highest and most perfect, may be partly explained by such an admission.

Better to explain my views, I will take the case of an island situated in a part of the ocean, which we will suppose at last becomes favourable to the growth of coral: The circumstances, which determine the presence or absence of the Saxigenous Polypi, are sufficiently obscure, but they do not enter into this discussion. Letter (A B) represent

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the slope of an island so circumstanced and (C  D) the level of the ocean. Then coral would immediately commence [in margin: 'X begin'] to grow on the shore (D) and would extend seaward as far as the depth of water, would permit its rising from the bottom. Let this point be (H). The breadth of the reef (H  D) would then depend, on the angle of inclination of the bottom. This space might either be converted into a piece of alluvial ground, or even from the coral springing up vertically from (E) and so protecting the inner space, might exist as a lagoon. This reef would however essentially differ, from those in the South Sea; in the depth of the water. (I exclude any few exceptions) beyond [in margin 'xx to misspelled 'beyound' and 'Badly expressed'] the wall not suddenly becoming excessive. If the level of this island should remain stationary, I cannot imagine any change; but if the land should be raised, (or the sea sink); the outline would be as represented by the dotted line, and on the shores, a fringe of dry coral rock would be left: this circumstance is known to happen in the East and west Indian Islands. Some such fact, may perhaps explain the double reefs found by Captain Beechey at Loo Choo, one of which was dead and one living.

Now if we suppose the land gradually to subside (See Figure II:) I have represented the water rising; the effect of course is surely the same) the level of the sea

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[pencil annotation in the third hand:]

Channels not being blocked up by in reefs—would allow of the escape of detritus— which would always be filling up the reef enclosed lagoons — or rather the spaces between the reefs and the shores—

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will stand at (C  1) instead of at (C  D). The coral of the outer wall, favoured by the heavy surf, will soon recover its former level. If this process, is repeated each time the sea will gain on the land whilst, the reef rises, nearly vertically on its first foundation.

I say nearly vertically because, any and every small portion removed in front of the lower part and the building being continued upwards before its repair, this must throw backwards the whole of the superstructure. When the level stands at (C  3), the space between the reefs and the land, will be more, than twice as broad as at first. This space will probably be occupied by a lake of water, such still water, not being favourable to the growth of the most efficient species of coral.

I may mention, that when at first the reef touched the shore, in the mouth of each stream, there must have been a channel; such openings, during the longest series of depressions, would be continued, hence would generally face the valleys, as is observed to be the case. These channels would generally have about the same depth as the lagoons; their bottoms being partly filled up with sand or detritus. [in margin: 'No more'] The action of currents would prevent their total filling up. This explanation is

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Referrible to those reefs which front a continent, or encircle an island. If the subsidence are continue, till by the encroachment of the waters, an island is reduced from large to small, and is at last totally submerged; then these will remain a true lagoon island. When viewing Eimeo, (or the chart) of New Caledonia, I talked of removing the central mass of hills, this was the process I was considering. I must observe, that in the early part of the series of subsidences, there can be little doubt that the fresh water and sediment brought down from the central land, would be injurious to the growth of the coral within the reef. But when a lagoon island is once formed, (excepting the prejudice caused by the accumulated sediment, as a slippery foundation), we must look to the other reasons as an explanation of the continuation of the inequality in growth.

If the above hypothesis, all its parts considered together, is considered even as partially satisfactory (for I am aware several objections can be raised against it) it will be worth while to follow out some of the more extended consequences. In those parts of the world, where a general movement upwards is in progress, we ought not to find groups of lagoon islands.

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or that class of reefs, which encircles the land, at a distance, and has very deep water close to the outer wall. How far is actually the case, I have not sufficient data to judge. In the west Indies, where proofs of recent elevation are abundant, reefs of these structures are not found, or at least are not common.

Within the East Indian Islands, the shores of which are frequently overlaid with raised coral rock, I believe likewise they are not found. In the Pacifick I may adduce the Sandwich Islands. It will be interesting to discover, whether those groups (our first class) which are not protected by reefs, but yet have coral abundant on their shores, can be proved to have been recently elevated. Mr George Bennet informs me that in the New Hebrides, which are thus circumstanced he found dead coral at an elevation of 1500 feet. If such generally is the case, it will give much probability to the idea, that the direction of the movement determines the structure of the reef. It is manifest, that a lagoon island might be raised a trifle, by an oscillation in the general movement without its character being lost. This appears to have happened at Turtle Island (Cook), which (Page 147) Forster brings forward as the best instance of subterranean upheaval in the Pacifick. Plants are

[George Bennett, author of Wanderings in New South Wales]

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described on the reef as growing on the dead coral, which is raised above the reach of high water. Yet this island, appears to have retained its proper figure. If however such movements were continued, no doubt an island of our fourth class would be produced. Now it is remarkable, that out of the few instances of this class, given by Captain Beechey, two of these islands are surrounded by reefs of growing coral, but these are attached to the shore, not being separated by channels or lakes of water. I allude to Henderson Island described by Captain Beechey, himself and Watea (Mangeea Rimataria) by Cook. On the opposite supposition, of a general progressive subsidence in any part of the world (of course I include only those few favourable to the growth of coral) we should expect to find either or both lagoon islands and the encircling reefs. The archipelago of the Society Islands (which are encircled) and that of the Low Islands occur in the same part of the ocean. The Friendly Islands in a like manner are divided into the same to sorts of groups. As decisive evidence of depressions of level, will almost always be deficient; all that we can look to is that there is no evidence of an opposite tendency. Now against this, I flagrant instance, can be brought up, from Mr Ellis' account of the true Society Islands. He states, that on the mountains of Raiatea

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coral and shells &c. &c. are (E. Ellis, volume 1st. page 387) found. I do not clearly understand that he himself has examined into the circumstances; perhaps they may be interstratified with the lavas and only point out a very ancient elevation. From the mineralogical nature of the strata in Tahiti I felt no doubt, but wthat [x in margin to misspelling] they had formerly been submerged, beneath the sea. To all such general views, as these, many exceptions, may always be expected to be found; to ascertain their truth, a far more extended examination of all the phenomena; is absolutely necessary. If the reality of them should ever be proved, it would be important (a) to geology. For then we might assume, that groups of lagoon islands clearly showed that a chain of mountains had there subsided. And, when in any formation there should be found, a great thickness composed of coral even that [erased in margin: 'some mistake'] the genera of which resembling [in margin: 'Consult R Ledo [illeg] of [illeg]'] those which now build the reefs; we might also conclude, that during its successive accumulation, the general movement, was one of depression. Before finally concluding this subject, I may remark that the general horizontal uplifting which I have proved, has been and is ['x' in margin] now raising upwards the greater part of S. America, and as it would appear likewise of North America, would of necessity be compensated by an equal

[pencil annotation by Darwin:] Cocos to Sumatra.— Indian ocean with East Africa—

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Not simply because explaining the origin of reefs but because an index is found to ascertain a point, of which scarcely any evidence excepting historical is at present known.

Here perhaps introduce the sentence of Polypi making a monument.—

Polypi. Historians, their species now not only of time, but of the movement, a point on which evidence is deficient.

But before this period in our knowledge [illeg] more data must be accumulated, * a more accurate knowledge of the living species of coral.— the natural history of which most singular animals may be said to have scarcely commenced.—

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subsidence in some other part of the world. Does not the great extent of the Northern and Southern Pacifick include this corresponding area? Humboldt (Fragmens Asiatiques Page 95) in a similar manner considers, that the epoch of the sinking down of Western Asia coincides with the elevation of the platforms, of Iran, of central Asia, of the Himalaya, of Kuen lun, of Thain chan, and of all the ancient systems of mountains, directed from East to West.

22bv

V. Byron for structure of Malden Is.d—

V. Chart of the Barrier of Eastern Australia, are there in that district any lagoon Is.ds?—

How are the Ladrones (which have dead coral on the surface) Kotzebue II Vol

V. Daubeny. Is there not volcano?

— Introduce Allude in a note to the Galapagos cold currents.—